45: Machiavelli the Historian

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 45
Title Machiavelli the Historian

“As to exercise for the mind, the prince ought to read history and study the actions of eminent men, see how they acted in warfare, examine the causes of their victories and defeats in order to imitate the former and avoid the latter."
Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Chapter 14, 1513

Welcome back to the I Take History With My Coffee podcast where we explore history in the time it takes to drink a cup of coffee.

As espoused in “The Prince” and the “Discourses on Livy,” Machiavelli's political thought is rooted in his study of history and its role.  He believed that understanding history was essential for successful statecraft and warfare. Machiavelli advocated for rulers and their counselors to study the actions of eminent figures, analyzing their successes and failures to emulate the former and avoid the latter.  This approach bridges the gap between ancient wisdom and modern governance.  History was not a mere source of pride but a practical guide for addressing contemporary challenges.

In episode 20, titled Civitas, I touched upon how the view of history changed with the emergence of Italian humanism. Before discussing Machiavelli, I will review these changes in more depth.

Many Ancient Greek and Roman authors were lost or forgotten in Europe during the Early Medieval period.  The gradual rediscovery of the works of antiquity brought about a shift in the intellectual climate beginning in the 13th century.  This new intellectual movement gave rise to humanism.  Humanists stressed the importance of the individual rather than the divine.  They looked for rational solutions to human problems.  They believed that these solutions were to be found in classical texts.    Early humanists, such as Francesco Petrarch in the early 14th century, considered the Medieval period an age of decline and sought to revive the intellectualism of the classical world.  

Within the context of humanism, the purpose of history would shift from the theological and the divine back toward classical models with an emphasis on ethical and moral questions.  Petrarch, often regarded as the "father of humanism," would describe history as “political and moral instruction.”  Rudolf Agricola, a contemporary scholar, emphasized Petrarch's pivotal role in rescuing ancient knowledge from obscurity and revitalizing culture, leaving a lasting legacy for future generations.  

Despite Petrarch's influential contributions, his direct involvement in historical writing was limited. Instead, Italian cities like Venice, Milan, Genoa, and Florence became hubs of historical documentation, boasting a rich tradition of chronicles. Though numerous and sometimes repetitive, these chronicles served multiple purposes, including preserving civic records for commercial, administrative, and political motives. Civic-minded chroniclers sought to honor their city's heritage while aligning it with the grandeur of ancient Rome. These local chronicles incorporated classical myths and genealogies.  Italian cities associated themselves with the broader European cultural narrative, tracing their origins back to events like Noah's sons dispersing after the Flood and the Trojan heroes' exile after the fall of Troy, thereby asserting their historical significance within the broader context of European heritage.

Giovanni Villani, a prominent figure in Florence, produced a significant city chronicle written in the vernacular, offering a comprehensive survey of Florence's history from its mythical foundation to its contemporary crisis. Villani aimed to preserve the city's history for future generations to increase Florence's prosperity.  As a member of Florence's municipal government, Villani sought to glorify his fatherland while displaying an impressive knowledge of classical literature. His narrative included legendary and historical figures, highlighting Florence's connection to ancient Rome and its significant role in European history. Despite some credulity in his storytelling, Villani emphasized Florence's importance within the Guelf Party and its cultural and commercial progress.

Following Villani, other Florentine chroniclers continued the tradition, offering insights into the city's political struggles and cultural achievements. Dino Compagni, for instance, focused on teaching moral lessons by recounting civil strife. Goro Dati defended Florentine liberty against Milanese influence, aligning with earlier providentialist themes. They used vivid language and imagery within the vernacular of the period. 

The humanist tradition in Florence, led by figures like Leonardo Bruni, shifted towards a more practical and civic-minded approach to history. Bruni's "History of the Florentine People" expanded on Villani's chronicle, adopting a humanist style and emphasizing history’s moral and political lessons. “History involves at the same time a long continuous narrative, casual explanation of each particular event, and appropriately placed judgments on certain issues.” Bruni rejected mythical accounts favoring documented sources, aligning with a growing emphasis on historical accuracy.

Lorenzo Valla, a friend of Bruni, furthered historical criticism and promoted the study of humanist subjects. He challenged historical forgeries, such as the Donation of Constantine, which granted the Catholic Church special privileges. He celebrated the triumphs of the Latin language and culture, contributing to a broader understanding of history's role in preserving and shaping civilization.

The Brunian model of historiography influenced subsequent Florentine writers and spread throughout Italy and Europe. It shaped interpretations of the past and stressed the importance of historical accuracy and moral lessons.

By the start of the 16th century, both approaches to historical writing coexisted. These two approaches would be synthesized in the works of Machiavelli and his younger contemporary, Francesco Guicciardini, laying the foundation of modern historical thought.

As previously discussed, Machiavelli is often depicted as a political realist. However, Machiavelli was not just a pragmatic strategist but also a deep thinker about the role of history in shaping political structures and decisions.  One of the central themes in Machiavelli's historical perspective is that history often repeats itself, not due to fate or destiny, but because human nature remains constant.  In the Discourses, Machiavelli writes: "Whoever considers the past and the present will readily observe that all cities and all peoples are and ever have been animated by the same desires and the same passions; so that it is easy, by diligent study of the past, to foresee what is likely to happen in the future in any republic, and to apply those remedies that were used by the ancients, or, not finding any that were employed by them, to devise new ones from the similarity of the events.”

Machiavelli delved into various aspects of human nature, class structure, political faction, religion, republican liberty, and sources of political power.  According to Machiavelli, humanity emerged from a primitive state akin to beasts, gradually transitioning to a system of governance under a single ruler and establishing laws and punishments. However, inherent corruption led to the deterioration of monarchy into tyranny, marked by disorder and conspiracies. This cyclical pattern was further fueled by generational dynamics, wherein each successive generation either forgot the virtues of their predecessors or reacted against their vices, precipitating political revolutions.

The cycle continued with the rise of aristocracy in response to authoritarian rule, only to degenerate into oligarchy. The third phase saw the emergence of democratic revolt, followed by another phase of decline, ultimately culminating in the ascent of a virtuous leader and the restoration of monarchy. Machiavelli concluded that this cycle was inevitable for all republics, suggesting a deterministic view of historical evolution characterized by recurring patterns of governance and societal development. This cyclical view of history contrasts with earlier historiography's linear narratives.

Despite his deterministic views on historical patterns, Machiavelli acknowledged the complexities of political and military strategies, recognizing the influence of fortune and individual dispositions on outcomes. As stated in the Discourses, sometimes the actions of a man were "out of harmony with his times and with the type of affairs.” His experiences of political failure and exile informed his nuanced understanding of historical analysis.  As we have seen, virtù, as Machiavelli defines it, encompasses qualities such as strength, skill, and adaptability—attributes crucial for successful political leadership. Machiavelli examines historical figures through the lens of virtù, assessing their actions and strategies in terms of their effectiveness rather than their moral righteousness. This focus on the practical implications of historical events distinguishes Machiavelli's approach from his predecessors.

Moreover, Machiavelli rejects fatalistic attitudes towards fortune, asserting that while its influence is undeniable, knowledge and proactive measures can mitigate its effects. He envisions a future ruler who, through a deep appreciation for antiquity, can govern in a way that minimizes the erratic nature of fortune's sway over political affairs.

Machiavelli's historical work, particularly his "History of Florence and the Affairs of Italy," diverges from his more prescriptive works like "The Prince" and "Discourses" in its approach. Rather than offering explicit advice, this historical account serves as a cautionary tale, showcasing examples to be avoided rather than imitated from Florence's past. Machiavelli laments the decline of virtuous leadership and the rise of corruption and decadence in Florentine society. He contrasts the heroic deeds of earlier statesmen like Cosimo de' Medici with the self-serving machinations of their successors. Machiavelli's critique of contemporary politics serves as a cautionary tale, warning against the dangers of moral complacency and the erosion of civic values. Machiavelli traces the decline of Florence, attributing it to factors such as the papacy's secular power and the Florentine nobility's ruin, which led to party divisions and dependence on foreign mercenaries.

Machiavelli's examination of Florentine history drew from both chronicle and humanist traditions, notably influenced by the works of Villani and Bruni. He applied strong interpretations of historical records in alignment with his political beliefs and objectives. While he acknowledged the contributions of predecessors like Bruni, he criticized the neglect of internal history in favor of focusing solely on foreign conflicts. Machiavelli aimed to rectify this imbalance by delving into the cultural ramifications of historical events, particularly emphasizing the transformative impact of the barbarian invasions. These invasions, he argued, brought about profound changes not only in governance and leadership but also in various aspects of society, such as laws, customs, religion, language, and attire.

He highlighted the emergence of the Roman papacy as a political force in the aftermath of these invasions, noting how the alliance between the popes and the Carolingian Empire contributed to the transition of spiritual authority into a secular monarchy. Machiavelli contended that the pontiffs instigated many subsequent wars in Italy, which often invited barbarian forces into the region. Throughout the twelfth century and beyond, the rivalry between the Guelf and Ghibelline factions, representing papal and imperial interests, continued to shape Italy's destiny.

Machiavelli rejected the idea of Florence's origins being rooted in the exploits of legendary figures, instead attributing its establishment to economic pragmatism and the development of markets. He emphasized the city's prosperity and pursuit of freedom through commercial activities and the rising influence of noble families. However, like the broader Italian community, Florence was plagued by internal division. Machiavelli noted the cyclical nature of political change, highlighting the tendency of provinces to oscillate between order and disorder over time.

He identified private feuds, such as the conflict between the Cerchi and Donati families, as fundamental causes of disorder within the state. These conflicts intertwined with the broader struggle between the Guelfs and Ghibellines. Additionally, class conflict exacerbated tensions, particularly the resentment of the populace towards the nobility. While Rome had resolved its social disparities through legal mechanisms, Machiavelli observed that Florentines resorted to internal strife and exile for the defeated party. This included the "white" Guelfs, who represented the military class and embodied the traditional virtues of Florence. The struggle for power between competing families, such as the Medici and the Pazzi, illustrated the fragility of political order and the ruthless tactics of ambitious elites to maintain their dominance.

Although there were periods of restoration, such as under Medici rule, Machiavelli ultimately paints a grim picture of Florence's fate. He argues that Florence's inability to adapt to the changing geopolitical landscape, dominated by national monarchies, led to its decline and eventual subjugation.  His historical narrative provided insights into the causes of invasions by the French and Spanish, whom he regarded as "barbarians," and their impact on European political dynamics. These invasions precipitated the Italian wars, culminating in a disastrous period for Italy and Florence. 

Machiavelli's approach to history in the "History of Florence" is marked by a blend of irony, skepticism, and political insight. He doesn't merely recount events; he uses historical narratives to convey deeper truths about politics, power dynamics, and human nature.  Machiavelli's ironic view of history is evident in his portrayal of characters and events. He often presents historical figures in a critical light, highlighting their flaws and contradictions. Through irony, he exposes the gap between appearances and reality, challenging conventional interpretations of history.

Moreover, his willingness to question traditional narratives and sources reflects Machiavelli's skepticism towards historical accounts. He seeks to uncover the underlying motivations and power struggles behind historical events rather than accepting surface-level explanations at face value.  Machiavelli used comparative analysis in his historical writing and frequently juxtaposes different historical examples to draw out common themes and principles, allowing readers to discern underlying patterns.

Machiavelli was a master of rhetoric, using language strategically to persuade and influence his audience. He employed rhetorical devices such as irony, hyperbole, and understatement to convey his ideas effectively and to provoke thought. By harnessing the power of language, Machiavelli crafted compelling narratives that resonated with his readers and compelled them to consider his perspective on politics and power.  Machiavelli's works are characterized by their engaging narrative style. He used storytelling to convey his political insights, weaving together historical events and anecdotes to illustrate his points. Through vivid descriptions and dramatic narratives, Machiavelli captured the attention of his audience and made his ideas more accessible and memorable.

Within the tradition of vernacular historiography, Machiavelli engaged with a broader audience beyond the elite circles of Latin-educated scholars. He democratized historical discourse by writing in the people’s language, making it accessible to a wider readership and shaping public opinion. 

Machiavelli's historical writing highlights its innovative nature and its enduring significance for the development of modern historiography. Machiavelli's emphasis on practical wisdom, political realism, and comparative analysis challenged established norms and laid the groundwork for a more analytical and empirically grounded approach to studying history.

If Machiavelli’s existential crisis were the Italian Wars, then Constantinople's fall in 1453 was the existential crisis for Europe.  In the next episode, we will shift our geographic focus eastward and begin to chart the rise of the Ottoman Turks.

As always, maps and other supporting resources for all episodes are listed in the episode description. In the meantime, for more historical content, please visit the “I Take History With My Coffee” blog at itakehistory.com and also consider liking the I Take History With My Coffee Facebook page.  Feedback and comments are welcome at itakehistory@gmail.com.  Or you can leave a review on Apple Podcasts or on Spotify.  You can also help support this podcast by buying me a coffee at buymeacoffee.com/itakehistory.  If you know anyone else who would enjoy this podcast, please let them know.  And thanks for listening.