46: Origins of the Ottomans

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 46
Title: Origins of the Ottomans

“But Osman, finding, as we said, the crossing from the other side easy, ravaged as far as Nicaea, that is, with only one hundred Turks he unexpectedly seized the area of the Halizones, and, having taken sufficient men prisoner, he turned back. So those with Mouzalon sought them out. But the Turks occupied the hills first and, thus, had a secure spot. They pelted the Romans with their bows [and arrows] and so defeated them."
 
George Pachymeres, "Thirteen Books on Michael and Andronicus Palaeologus", Vol 2, c. 1310

Welcome back to the I Take History With My Coffee podcast where we explore history in the time it takes to drink a cup of coffee.


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We’ll be covering a part of the world whose geography might not be familiar to everyone. The show description includes links to maps of the region. I encourage everyone to review those maps as we discuss the Ottoman Empire.

Many places changed from Greek names to Turkish. I will give both for the period before the fall of Constantinople in 1453. After 1453, I will stick to the Turkish name of the place.

In general I will try to use the Turkish or Arabic form of a person’s name.  Please bear with me at pronunciations.  I ask forgiveness in advance if I don’t get it quite right.  

 On the morning of May 29, 1453, the Ottoman Turkish army, led by the strategic brilliance of Sultan Mehmed II, gathered before the walls of Constantinople. This was not just another assault, but a meticulously planned operation to end the nearly two-month siege.  The tremendous double Theodosian Walls, which had repelled attacks since the 5th century CE, were about to face a new kind of challenge.  Three hours before sunrise, the sultan launched his attack.  Two waves of men failed to make a foothold upon the city ramparts.  Then, the sultan sent in his professional soldiers, the Janissaries, accompanied by a barrage of cannon fire.  Against this relentless bombardment and fierce attack, the worn-out walls and the weary defenders gave way.  The Turks breached the city defenses, and the capital of the Byzantine Empire fell to the invading army.  The fall of Constantinople would send shockwaves across Europe and change the face of history.

Over the course of a hundred years, the Ottomans, once an obscure Turkish polity in Anatolia’s borderlands, gradually rose to power. They conquered Anatolia, the Balkans, and the remnants of the Byzantine Empire, marking their territory with each conquest.  For the next two centuries, they would be in a locked battle with the European powers over the control of the Mediterranean Sea and Central Europe. Their influence, both direct and indirect, would shape the history of the European continent and leave an indelible mark on the European psyche.  

In March, at the onset of the eighth Islamic century, heavy rains caused the Sakarya River to overflow, creating a path along its former course under a neglected bridge.  Displaced by the rain, Turkish herders could circumvent the damaged Byzantine defenses along the riverbank. They launched surprise attacks on Byzantine forces, taking advantage of their situation, leading to pillaging and subsequent raids. Despite efforts by the Byzantine emperor to counter the Turkish threat, the Turks achieved a significant victory at the plain of Bapheus outside Nikomedia.  This event marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire.

Yet, the true origins of the Ottoman Empire remain a tantalizing enigma. Even the exact date of its inception eludes us, with Ottoman writers favoring the Islamic year 699, a symbolic renewal with each new century. The convergence of the Islamic year 700 and the Christian year 1300 adds to the intrigue, marking a unique intersection of eras. 

The Ottoman tradition credits Osman, the son of Ertughrul, as the founder of the Ottoman Empire. Little is known about his origins, with no record of his birthplace or birthdate. For a considerable period, no artifacts from his lifetime made it challenging to piece together his history. Recent discoveries, however, shed some light on his existence, such as two coins bearing his name found in London and Istanbul.

Even his name is subject to debate. While he is commonly known as Osman, the Greek historian Pachymeres referred to him as Ataman. This discrepancy suggests that he adopted the name Osman upon converting to Islam. This theory raises questions about Osman's religious and cultural background, as his name is of Muslim origin, while Ataman has Turkish or possibly Mongolian roots.

Like many great empires, the origins of the Ottoman state are clouded by myth, legend, and epic poetry.  One myth, written in the 15th century, ascribes the empire’s founding to a dream.  Osman was sleeping in the house of a holy man when: 

“He saw that a moon arose from the holy man’s breast and came to sink in his own breast.  A tree then sprouted from his navel and its shade compassed the world.  Beneath this shade there were mountains, and streams flowed forth from the foot of each mountain.  Some people drank from these running waters, others watered gardens, while yet others caused fountains to flow.  When Osman awoke he told the story to the holy man, who said ‘Osman, my son, congratulations, for God has given the imperial office to you and your descendants and my daughter Malhun shall be your wife.’”

Dreams aside, the Ottomans' origin and rise must be understood in the context of the political and social environment in Medieval Anatolia in the century before they officially appeared on the historical stage.  

Byzantine Asia Minor during the 11th and 12th centuries witnessed significant movements of Turkish tribes, often spurred by both internal and external factors. Of these, the Seljuk Turks, whose nomadic origins and military prowess enabled them to establish a formidable presence in the region, capitalized on weaknesses within the Byzantine Empire, exploiting internal strife and territorial vulnerabilities to expand their influence.

The Seljuk Turks became a significant medieval Turkish dynasty in the 11th century. They played a crucial role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of the Middle East and Central Asia. Originating from the steppes of Central Asia, the Seljuks rose to prominence under the leadership of their founder, Seljuk Bey.

The Seljuk Turks migrated westward from their homeland in the region of modern-day Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. They were initially part of the Oghuz Turkic tribal confederation, a nomadic group that roamed the Central Asian steppes. Around the 10th century, they began to move into the Islamic world, where they eventually established their empire. They conquered regions such as Persia, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia, effectively becoming the dominant power in the eastern Islamic world.  The influx of Turks into Anatolia increased after the Great Seljuk sultan defeated the Byzantine emperor at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, leading to the collapse of Byzantine rule in eastern Anatolia.

The Seljuks adopted Islam and became patrons of Islamic culture and scholarship, facilitating their empire's flourishing of art, architecture, and literature. They also played an essential part in the spread of Islam, particularly the Sunni branch, across the regions they controlled.

The Sultanate of Rum, also known as the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, was founded by the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish in the late 11th century after the Battle of Manzikert. The battle marked the beginning of Turkish migration and settlement in Anatolia on a larger scale. Over time, the Seljuks consolidated their control over the region, establishing their capital at Iconium (modern-day Konya).

The term "Rum" referred to the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was named as such because it was established in the heartland of Anatolia, which had been the Byzantine Empire's territory.

The Sultanate reached its zenith under the reign of  Ala' al-Din Kayqubad I, who reigned 1220–1237. He expanded its borders and undertook significant architectural projects. In the early 13th century, the Seljuks subdued their rivals, establishing control over territories such as Lesser Armenia. This expansion included capturing key ports like Antalya and Sinop, granting them access to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and facilitating direct trade with Europe.

Other political changes occurred in Anatolia during this period. The Empire of Nicaea was founded, primarily to maintain control over Anatolia and act as a barrier against further Turkish advances westward. 

The Empire of Nicaea was founded in the early 13th century as a direct result of the upheavals caused by the Fourth Crusade, particularly the capture of Constantinople by the Latin Crusaders in 1204. After the fall of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire fragmented into several successor states, with the Latin Empire established in Constantinople and various Byzantine territories falling under the control of Crusader and Greek noble families.

In response to the Latin occupation of Constantinople, Theodore I Lascaris, a member of the Byzantine aristocracy, established the Empire of Nicaea with its capital in Nicaea (modern-day İznik, Turkey) in 1204. The primary goal of this new empire was to preserve the Byzantine legacy, reclaim lost territories, and ultimately restore the Byzantine Empire to its former glory. Nicaea, strategically located in northwestern Anatolia, was a stronghold against further Latin incursions into Byzantine territory.

The Empire of Nicaea became a focal point for Byzantine resistance against the Latin Empire and other external threats. It strived to reunify the fractured Byzantine territories and reclaim Constantinople from the Latin occupiers. 

In the 13th century, the Mongol invasion was the most pivotal event in Anatolian history, both politically and socially. Ala' al-Din Kayqubad I's astute policies initially kept this threat at bay, even causing it to recede, allowing for further Seljuk conquests in the east. However, his successor, Kaykhusraw II, faced domestic turmoil as some Turkic tribes, previously settled by Kayqubad, turned against the Seljuk state, necessitating Kaykhusraw's efforts to contain them.

Despite outward successes, such as new conquests in the east, the Seljuk administration faltered under Kaykhusraw II, further exacerbated by economic difficulties and ill-conceived military campaigns. The turning point came with the Mongol invasion in 1242, which captured and destroyed key Anatolian cities. At the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, the Mongols decisively defeated the Seljuk forces, subjecting Anatolia to Mongol rule.  

The Mongol conquest in the mid-13th century reduced the Seljuk sultanate to vassalage and indirectly contributed to the collapse of Byzantine rule in western Anatolia. Competition for resources with the Mongols also led to Turkish nomad s migrating westward, further altering Anatolia's demographic and political landscape.

Under Mongol dominance, political life in Anatolia became subject to the will of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose realm centered in what is now Iran.  Seljuk sultans were appointed or removed at their discretion. Mongol commanders wielded significant influence over the Seljuk government, exacerbating economic hardships through heavy taxation and administrative inefficiencies. Rivalries between Seljuk sultans and emirs and conflicts among Mongol commanders further destabilized the region.  Despite sporadic resistance, particularly in mountainous and remote areas, Ilkhanid rule prevailed in central and eastern Anatolia.

The Byzantine emperor's reconquest of Constantinople in 1261 weakened Byzantine control in western Anatolia, facilitating another wave of Turkish migration into the region. By the end of the 13th century, western Anatolia underwent a similar demographic shift towards a predominantly Turkish population, mirroring the changes in central and eastern Anatolia in the 11th century.

Byzantine rule waned under this influx of Turkish immigration, leading to establishing Turkish principalities by 1300, replacing Greek dominance. These principalities included Teke along the south coast near Antalya, Hamid around Isparta, Germiyan with its capital in Kütahya, and Osman in former Byzantine Bythinia, whose territories would form the core of the future Ottoman Empire.

As the authority of the Seljuk Sultanate weakened, local Turkish tribal leaders, often referred to as bey (meaning "lord or chief"), began to assert control over specific regions. They were usually descendants of Turkish tribal leaders who had migrated to Anatolia during the early phases of the Seljuk conquests. These leaders maintained their power through military strength, alliances, and, in some cases, by paying tribute to more powerful neighboring states, such as the Mongols or the Byzantine Empire.  These leaders established beyliks, essentially creating small, independent states within the broader framework of the crumbling Seljuk Empire. These beyliks varied in size and significance, with their development influenced by geographic location and leadership capabilities. 

The beyliks were characterized by a decentralized political structure, with significant autonomy granted to local rulers. This autonomy allowed them to govern their territories according to their customs and traditions.  Over time, some beyliks grew in power and influence, expanding their territories through conquest or diplomatic alliances, while others remained relatively small and localized. 

The emergence of the Osman beylik on the western borderlands exemplified the potential for expansion among these beyliks. Unlike those confined to interior regions, beyliks on the frontiers had greater opportunities for growth. Consequently, the Osman beylik, among others, capitalized on favorable conditions to expand its influence. 

During the Seljuk era, Anatolia saw a systematic settlement of Turkish tribes. This migration, primarily of Oghuz Turks from Central Asia, transformed Anatolia from a temporary military theater into a permanent settlement. The Seljuk state strategically dispersed large tribal groups across Anatolia to prevent unified revolts and to facilitate the emergence of a national entity under Seljuk rule.

While Oghuz Turkmen constituted the majority of settlers, Anatolia also hosted various other Turkish groups, alongside Christian or pagan Oghuz and Pechenegs relocated by the Byzantine Empire. Despite continuous fighting, including Crusades and conflicts with Byzantium, Anatolia experienced significant Turkization by the end of the 12th century.

The advent of the Mongols triggered further migrations to Anatolia, drawing Muslim Turks to seek refuge from the Mongol invasion. This influx and subsequent migrations under Ilkhanid rule significantly bolstered the Turkish presence in Anatolia. The weakened Byzantine Empire could not effectively counter the influx, leading to the gradual advance of Turkish nomads toward coastal areas. This demographic shift, driven by both internal and external factors, reshaped Anatolia's ethnic and cultural fabric irreversibly. 

Early sources unanimously point to the Oghuz Turkmen as the core element from which the Ottoman Turks originated. Conflicting accounts exist regarding the Ottoman migration into Anatolia, some attributing it to the Mongol invasion while others suggest a gradual movement during the Seljuk period. 

Legend has it that Osman, the founder of the Ottoman state, declared himself a sovereign ruler at Eskişehir. From there, he and his followers migrated northwestward into Byzantine Bythinia, east of Constantinople. The reason for settling in this area is subject to speculation. Still, it’s possible that a natural disaster, such as a flood that changed the course of the Sakarya River in the spring of 1302, facilitated Osman's crossing and settlement in Bythinia.

The geography of Anatolia played a significant role in the success or failure of the various Turkish beys at establishing their territorial enclaves.  The Central Anatolian Plateau, a vast expanse of rolling hills and high plains, dominates Anatolia. This region is characterized by its continental climate, with hot, dry summers and cold, snowy winters. The steppe grasslands provide rich grazing lands for flocks.  Mountains on all sides surround this plateau except the western edge.  In the west, the terrain gently falls to the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara.  This creates a vast, fertile coastal plain.  The people are more settled as the rich soil enhances agriculture.  The sea is also a source of livelihood for those on the coast: fishing and trade.  To the north and south, rugged, steep mountains hug the shore, creating a narrow coastal strip.  To the southeast, the mountains give way to the deserts of Iran, Iraq, and Syria.

The Ottomans were fortunate in their geography. Osman controlled lands close to Constantinople, which brought him in contact with the Byzantine governors of the towns in northwestern Anatolia. The area was prosperous, populous, and well-defended. Osman was also under pressure from the Byzantine army, which sought to protect what remained of imperial territory. Osman conducted raids along the Sakarya River, but these first raids were small and concentrated against the countryside rather than larger towns.  

Osman's raids quickly reached the Sea of Marmara. His victories attracted Turks from other parts of western Anatolia to join his ranks. Osman's role as a warrior is well-documented. Pachymeres describes him as a formidable leader who attracted fighters from various regions.  In 1302, he defeated a Byzantine army on the plain of Bapheus near Nikomedia (Izmit), expanding his influence throughout Bithynia. Although his men plundered the countryside, they faced challenges besieging walled towns due to Osman's lack of military expertise. His attempted assault on Nicaea (Iznik) failed. Upon Osman's death, critical Byzantine towns like Nicaea and Nikomedia remained unconquered. 

The exact date of Osman's death remains elusive, but it is believed to be around 1324. Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveler, mentioned Osman's burial in Bursa, likely in a mosque that was once a church dedicated to Saint Elias. Despite the church's destruction centuries ago, Osman's remains now rest alongside those of his son Orhan in twin mausoleums built in 1863. 

With Osman’s son, Orhan, the Ottomans step out from the shadows of legend and into the concrete world of history.  The next episode will explore the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the critical conquest of the Balkans at the end of the 14th century.

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