49: The Grand Turk

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 47
Title House of Osman

“The citizens, hearing that Orhan was approaching with a large number of Turks and seeing no way for help to reach them, became disheartened. They abandoned the strong and defensible city, which had sustained them for a long time and provided them with abundance. Orhan, finding it abandoned, entered with his Turks and placed people to inhabit and guard it, gaining an effortless victory.”

Matteo Villani, “The Histories of Matteo Villani, a Florentine Citizen, which continue those by Giovanni, His Brother,” c. 1395

Welcome back to the I Take History With My Coffee podcast where we explore history in the time it takes to drink a cup of coffee.

Remember, you can send feedback to me directly.  Just click on the Send Me A Text Message in the show description and let me know what you think of this episode.  

The Ottoman Empire rose from humble beginnings in the early 1300s to become one of the most powerful empires in history, spanning territories across Europe, Asia, and Africa. This meteoric rise can be traced to several key factors and the leadership of three visionary sultans over the 14th century.

Osman I was this visionary and charismatic leader who laid the groundwork for the Ottoman Empire. He brought together a diverse mix of people and set the stage for his son, Orhan, to take over and transform this budding community into a more structured state. Then, Orhan’s son, Murad I, took things further and pushed the empire’s expansion, turning it into a significant force. A 19th-century Ottoman poet summed it perfectly: “We raised a world-subduing power from a tribe."

Though just one of many small Turkish successor states after the decline of the Seljuks, the Ottomans benefited from their strategic location bordering the waning Byzantine Empire. Osman displayed superb leadership abilities - fostering unity through inclusion rather than rivalry and winning the loyalty of his followers with a blend of Islamic ideals and pragmatic governance.

Inspired by early Islamic principles emphasizing justice over sheer power, the Ottomans maintained a unique blend of independence and unity. Unlike other Seljuk principalities, they avoided dynastic rivalries, which was crucial for their success. 

They adapted to local social and economic conditions, utilizing their resources and those of neighboring states. The Ottomans smartly used local Greek administrative skills and maintained good relations with neighboring Christian communities. Many Anatolian Greeks converted to Islam voluntarily, attracted by the order, security, and opportunities under Ottoman rule. Intermarriage and social integration blended Greek and Turkish cultures, creating a new mixed society. Over time, the Ottomans evolved from nomadic warriors into a distinctive frontier civilization that combined Asian, European, Muslim, and Christian elements.

The traditions and social institutions of the Ghazis, fervent fighters for Islam, heavily influenced the Ottomans. These traditions were based on a communal life governed by ethical principles, organized into corporations or brotherhoods that adhered to Islamic rules for virtuous conduct. While primarily religious, these brotherhoods also included elements of Islamic mysticism, known as Sufism, and they had practical roles in society. In towns, they became guilds for merchants and artisans; in frontier regions, they formed military fraternities, like the akhis, who were devoted to religion and warfare. These were similar to the knightly brotherhoods of the Christian West during the Crusades, like the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller.

The traveler Ibn Battuta admired these brotherhoods for their hospitality and communal spirit. He described a hospice in Bursa that provided generous hospitality for travelers and guests funded by the daily earnings of guild members.

Today, scholars debate the extent of the Ghazis' influence compared to other political, social, and economic factors that contributed to the Ottomans' rise to power, as examined in the previous episode.

Whereas not much is known about Osman, his son, Orhan, left behind a rich legacy of contemporary evidence. His strategic brilliance is evident in his conquests and expansion, which are well-documented in Persian and Arabic sources. Ibn Battuta praised Orhan as a significant and influential ruler who was constantly engaged in warfare and maintaining numerous castles. Greek writers echo this, noting Orhan's conquests of Brusa (Bursa) in 1326, Nicaea (İznik) in 1331, and Nicomedia (İznikmid, İzmit) in 1337. These losses prompted Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III to march to Bithynia in 1328. Orhan halted the emperor at Pelekanon, near Constantinople.  This resulted in the land route to Bithynia being blocked by the Ottomans, leading to the fall of the remaining Byzantine towns and establishing Orhan’s control over Bithynia.

Orhan’s expansion also included the annexation of the Turkish emirate of Karesi in 1345-6, which provided access to Europe. In 1354, his son Suleiman Pasha captured Ankara, though it’s unclear precisely from whom.

Orhan introduced a unique land tenure system, distributing land as a reward for military service. This ensured the loyalty and availability of soldiers. Unlike European feudalism, the landholdings were small and non-hereditary, with the sultan retaining ultimate ownership. This structure prevented the emergence of a landed nobility, ensuring that the sultans maintained control over their territories and troops, a distinct feature of the Ottoman Empire’s governance.

Under Orhan’s leadership, the Ottoman military evolved into a regular standing army. He organized various military units, including the advance guard cavalry, irregular infantry, and salaried soldiers. These troops were disciplined, loyal to the sultan, and always prepared for battle. Contemporary observers noted their efficiency and readiness for conflict, remarking on their swift and silent movements compared to Christian armies.

The entry of the Turks into Europe wasn’t a sudden invasion like the Mongol conquests but more of a gradual infiltration. This process was helped by the decline of the Byzantine Empire and the disunity among Christian powers. The Fourth Crusade, which saw Latin knights capture Constantinople in 1204, established a short-lived Latin Empire that weakened Byzantium. Even after the Greeks reoccupied Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained a shadow of its former self, plagued by territorial losses, economic decline, and internal strife. 

The Byzantine Empire, beset by administrative and financial troubles, failed to produce strong leadership. Instead, the period after Constantinople’s recapture saw internal divisions and civil wars within the ruling Palaeologue dynasty. This disunity, a stark contrast to the Ottomans’ unified leadership, made it easier for the Turks to gain a foothold in Europe. Initially, Turkish mercenaries served Byzantine emperors, but their presence grew more significant over time, directly resulting from Byzantine internal strife that weakened their resistance.

After restoring Greek rule in Constantinople, Michael VIII Paleologos aimed to secure stability through alliances and union with the Catholic Church at the Council of Lyons in 1274. However, this union was unpopular among Orthodox Christians, and his successor, Andronicus II, disregarded it.

The reign of Andronicus II’s grandson, Andronicus III, saw the loss of Byzantine sovereignty in the Slavic regions of the Balkans. After he died in 1341, a civil war broke out between the regent Anne of Savoy, who supported union with Rome, and John Cantacuzenus, who opposed it and allied with the Ottomans.

Cantacuzenus declared himself co-emperor with the young John V Paleologos and secured military support from Turkish emirs. By 1345, Ottoman troops, led by Orhan, entered Europe to support Cantacuzenus, establishing a significant Ottoman presence. Cantacuzenus’s daughter, Theodora, married Orhan, strengthening this alliance.

In 1347, Cantacuzenus captured Constantinople, was crowned emperor, and married his daughter Helena to John V to consolidate power. The subsequent Black Death devastated the region, complicating politics further. Viewing the epidemic as a divine trial, many Byzantines gave away their possessions amidst the despair. In 1352, Cantacuzenus crowned his son Matthew as co-emperor, reigniting civil war and prompting further Turkish involvement.

In 1353, Suleiman Pasha crossed the Hellespont with an Ottoman force to take possession of Cimpe, a fortress on the peninsula between Gallipoli and the Aegean Sea. An earthquake shortly after allowed him to capture Gallipoli as well. Suleiman restored Gallipoli’s walls and brought over the first Ottoman settlers from Asia. Subsequent colonies followed, settling on lands of displaced Christian lords. The local Greek populace, primarily peasants, took refuge in citadels and towns, where they were left unmolested in exchange for voluntary submission.

This marked the beginning of an occupation that extended westward, incorporating the open frontier society of the Ghazis into European lands and imposing a new Ottoman structure. The Ottomans replaced Byzantine decentralization with a robust centralized state control. Local Christian lords began accepting Ottoman sovereignty, paying small annual tributes as tokens of submission. The Balkan peasantry, benefiting from Ottoman rule, which brought law and order, viewed this conquest as liberation from their feudal oppressors.

The Ottomans, positioned near Constantinople, controlled most of the Gallipoli Peninsula and the European coast of the Sea of Marmara. Cantacuzenus, feeling betrayed, tried to buy back Cimpe, but Orhan refused to cede Gallipoli. This refusal discredited Cantacuzenus, leading to his abdication and retreat to a monastery. Under no obligation to relinquish his European holdings, Orhan supported Matthew Kantakouzenus' claim to the Byzantine throne, raiding and conquering much of eastern Thrace.

By the mid-fourteenth century, the Ottomans had firmly established themselves in Europe, not as invaders but as allies and relatives of the Byzantine rulers. The Byzantine reliance on Ottoman support ultimately facilitated the Ottoman expansion. The Turks' entry into Europe was marked by strategic alliances, internal Byzantine weakness, and gradual encroachment rather than outright invasion.

The Ottoman conquest of Thrace showcased the strategic brilliance of Murad I, achieved after Suleiman's untimely death in a hunting accident. Murad I ascended to the Ottoman throne around 1362 following a brief civil war, and by the late 1360s, he had solidified his control. His reign saw significant territorial expansion in both Anatolia and Europe. In Anatolia, Murad annexed several Turkish principalities.  These are often portrayed as peaceful acquisitions, though some, like the annexations of Germiyan and Hamid, likely involved military campaigns. These acquisitions provided strategic and economic benefits, including a crucial trade route from Bursa to Antalya on the coast.

In Europe, he faced initial setbacks, such as the capture of Gallipoli by Amadeo of Savoy in 1366. However, he continued advancing into the Balkans. By 1369, the Ottomans had taken Adrianople (Edirne), a strategic location that opened routes into Bulgaria and Thrace. The Ottoman victory at the Battle of the Maritsa River in 1371 against Serbian forces marked the beginning of a series of Ottoman conquests in the region.

In the meantime, Murad expanded his influence through strategic alliances as well. He married into Turkish and Slavic nobility and used his son Bayezid's wedding to display his power.

In addition to implementing a general system of serfdom, Murad innovatively recruited a special infantry force from among the Christian population called the Janissaries, or 'New Troops.' Originating as a bodyguard unit under Orhan, the Janissaries were transformed by Murad into an elite militia designed to secure and defend Ottoman territories in Europe. This corps was formed through the practice of devshirme, a system of forcibly recruiting Christian boys, who were then converted to Islam and rigorously trained as soldiers dedicated to the Sultan. These boys were selected for their physical and intellectual qualities and were prohibited from marrying or owning property, dedicating their lives entirely to military service. The Janissaries, with their unique recruitment and training methods, played a crucial role in Murad's military strategy, contributing to the success of his conquests.

While European Christians condemned the Janissary system as inhumane, similar practices were not uncommon in the Islamic world. The concept of military slavery had historical precedents, notably under the Abbasid Caliphate and later in the Samanid and Mamluk dynasties, where enslaved people of Turkish origin rose to significant power. In Murad's time, the Janissaries numbered about a thousand but played a crucial role in the Ottoman military, often supported by larger contingents of Christian soldiers fighting under Ottoman command.

Despite their harsh recruitment, the Janissaries were renowned for their extensive training, education, and a lifelong career. This system ensured a high degree of discipline, technical skill, and loyalty, creating an elite military force that would wield significant power in the Ottoman Empire for centuries. The practice of drafting Christian youths into the Janissary Corps led some to convert to Islam voluntarily to avoid conscription, reflecting a pragmatic adaptation to the Ottoman's military needs.

After the conquest of Thrace, Murad expanded into Bulgaria, taking advantage of internal divisions. By 1387, he secured vassalage from Bulgaria through the capture of Serrai and Thessaloniki. Ottoman raids and subsequent conquests extended their control over southern Macedonia, Epiros, and the Peloponnesos. By 1385, Sofia had fallen to the Ottomans, followed by Nish in 1386. Over three years, the Ottomans secured the Maritza Valley and southern Bulgaria, turning local rulers into vassals and integrating their territories into the empire.

In the Balkans, Murad methodically advanced, exploiting Serbia’s internal strife. His approach included strategic pauses for consolidation, avoiding premature invasions, such as in Hungary, and focusing on securing flanks and stabilizing conquered territories. His empire-building principles were exemplified in the occupation of Sofia, a critical strategic point in the Balkans, and further advances into Serbia, culminating in the control of significant portions of former Roman highways.  He had created a streamlined empire stretching from Asia Minor to the Adriatic.

Murad faced resistance from Serbian Prince Lazar. A Serbian coalition led by Lazar defeated him at Plochnik, temporarily halting Ottoman advances. However, Murad patiently regrouped, and by 1388, he resumed his Balkan campaigns, completing the conquest of Bulgaria and securing strategic positions along the Danube.

In 1389, at seventy years old, Murad I led a final campaign against the Serbians, joined by renegade forces from Bulgaria and Serbia. The decisive Battle of Kosovo occurred on the 'plain of the blackbirds,' where Serbia, Bosnia, Albania, and Herzegovina converge. Despite being outnumbered, the Ottoman army's superior confidence and morale played a crucial role. Murad, anticipating victory, ordered that no destruction should occur, preserving the region's resources. With its high stakes and dramatic setting, this final campaign was a testament to Murad's leadership and military prowess.

The Serbian forces, plagued by distrust and fears of betrayal, saw Prince Lazar accusing his son-in-law, Milosh Obravitch, of disloyalty. Murad also had concerns, praying for protection and a martyr's death. On the battle's eve, assembled with Murad and his Janissaries in the center and his sons,  Bayezid on the right and Yakub on the left. The Serbians initially broke through the Ottoman left flank, but Bayezid counterattacked fiercely. The tide turned when Vuk Brankovitch, another of Lazar's sons-in-law, withdrew his forces, leading to a Serbian collapse.

Murad's prediction of Slav disunity proved accurate, but he was fatally wounded by Milosh Obravitch, who, seeking to prove his loyalty, pretended to defect. Despite the injury, Murad managed to secure a decisive victory before dying. His last act was to summon Lazar and order his execution.

Murad's death marked the end of his transformative reign. He had expanded the Ottoman state and transformed it into an empire, setting the foundation for future sultans like Mehmed the Conqueror and Suleiman the Lawgiver. His achievements in conquest and governance established the imperial structures that would support the empire's enduring power.

While military might was undoubtedly a factor, the Ottomans' true genius lay in capable leadership, strategic location, cultural integration, innovating ways to cultivate absolute loyalty like the Janissaries, and taking advantage of rivals' disunity. This multifaceted approach by Osman, Orhan, and especially Murad I enabled such an incredible transformation in just a few generations from a minor feudal state into the dominant Ottoman Empire poised to reach new heights in the coming centuries.

Yet, once more, a new threat from the East threatened to undo the nascent empire. In the next episode, we’ll explore the impact of the latest Mongol conquest led by Timur, known as Tamerlane in the West, and the subsequent Ottoman recovery on the eve of the siege of Constantinople in 1453.

As always, maps and other supporting resources for all episodes are listed in the episode description. In the meantime, for more historical content, please visit the “I Take History With My Coffee” blog at itakehistory.com and also consider liking the I Take History With My Coffee Facebook page.  Feedback and comments are welcome at itakehistory@gmail.com.  Or you can leave a review on Apple Podcasts or on Spotify.  You can also help support this podcast by buying me a coffee at buymeacoffee.com/itakehistory.  If you know anyone else who would enjoy this podcast, please let them know.  And thanks for listening.