50: The City of Constantine

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode: 50
Title: The City of Constantine

“The walls were very high and strong, but they were broken and in disrepair at some points; and the bastions and towers were dilapidated and fallen because of the laziness and negligence of the Greeks. The hopes of the defenders were pinned upon the outer walls, because their bastions were strong and in good enough repair for it to seem likely that they would be able to resist the attacks of the enemy. Here, as on the inner walls, many soldiers were stationed to repulse the enemy when they decided to attack.”
Cristoforo Ricchario, possible eyewitness to the siege of Constantinople, c. 1453

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A Constantine founded the city of Constantinople.  A Constantine would ultimately lose the city.

In 1449, just two years before Mehmet II became the Ottoman Sultan, Constantine XI, the last Byzantine Emperor, inherited an empire reduced to Constantinople and a few scattered territories. Although his title was grand— "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans"—his reign faced severe challenges.

The Byzantine Empire lasted from around 600 CE and remained recognizable as a descendant of Justinian’s Eastern Roman Empire until the 13th century. From the 11th century onward, the empire faced increasing difficulties, including cultural rifts with Western Europe, threats from Normans and German emperors, maritime competition from Italian city-states, the impact of the Crusades, and the expansion of the Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor. A critical moment came with the Fourth Crusade in 1204, when Crusaders sacked Constantinople and established the Latin Empire, fragmenting Byzantine territories into competing states. The Empire of Nicaea emerged as the strongest successor, recapturing Constantinople in 1261 and restoring the Byzantine Empire under Michael VIII Palaeologus.

However, the late Byzantine period was marked by relentless military and political pressures, particularly from the rising Ottoman Turks. Civil wars and economic strife further weakened the empire. Despite attempts at alliances and territorial recovery, the empire’s resources dwindled, and it increasingly relied on mercenaries.

By the 14th century, Byzantium was reduced to a shadow of its former self, clinging to elaborate court titles and ceremonies while lacking real power or resources. It was confined to Thrace, parts of Greece, and the Aegean islands. For a more comprehensive history of Byzantium, I recommend listening to the History of Byzantium podcast. It can be found on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and wherever you find your favorite podcasts.  

We have little information about what Constantine XI looked like, as no substantial portraits were commissioned during his reign; the only depiction is a schematic gold seal. However, it is agreed that he inherited the solid and regular features of his father, Manuel II. Constantine's personality is well-documented; he was the most capable and trustworthy of Manuel's sons, known for his philanthropy, resoluteness, courage, and deep patriotism. Unlike his quarrelsome and unprincipled brothers, Constantine was straightforward and inspired deep loyalty among those around him. He was a man of action, skilled in horsemanship and warfare, and steadfast in the face of setbacks.

Born in Constantinople in 1405, Constantine was acutely aware of the city's precarious situation from a young age. He experienced Murad II's siege at seventeen and served as regent during his brother John VIII's efforts to secure support from Christendom. By his accession in 1449 at forty-four, he had spent twenty years fighting to restore Byzantine control over the Peloponnese, with varying degrees of success. He cleared most foreign kingdoms from the peninsula by 1430 and expanded Byzantine territory into Northern Greece during the 1440s as Despot of Morea. However, Murad often thwarted his efforts, and a significant setback occurred in 1446 when an Ottoman army devastated the Morea, forcing Constantine into a humiliating truce.

Despite his efforts, Constantine's attempts to rebuild the Byzantine Empire were hampered by the self-serving and treacherous behavior of his brothers, Demetrios, Thomas, and Theodore. Their mother, Helena, had to assert Constantine's rightful claim to the throne. His reign was marked by persistent bad luck; although courageous, his ventures in the Morea were ill-fated and brought suffering to the Greek people. His personal life was also marked by tragedy, with both of his wives dying childless, and his attempts at securing a dynastic marriage in the late 1440s ultimately failed.

Constantinople, the modern-day Istanbul, was strategically situated on a triangular peninsula in southeastern Europe, bordered by the Sea of Marmara and the Golden Horn. Seven hills characterized the city's topography. The first hill housed the ancient Acropolis, where the Greek colony of Byzantium was established around 660 BCE. A ridge above the Golden Horn connects the first six hills, while the seventh hill, separated by the Lycus Valley, rises near the Marmara shore. 

Significant landmarks include the Hagia Sophia, a grand basilica on the first hill built by Emperor Justinian between 532 and 537, and the Great Palace of Byzantine, initially constructed by Emperor Constantine in 330 and later expanded by Justinian. The palace suffered ruin during the Latin occupation but was replaced by the Palace of Blachernae on the sixth hill, where emperors of the Palaeologus dynasty resided. The palace was integrated into the land walls, positioning the imperial household on the front lines.

The city’s perimeter stretched twelve miles, with eight miles flanked by the Sea of Marmara and the Golden Horn. The Sea of Marmara on the southern side presented a natural barrier with its swift currents and unpredictable storms, making naval assaults nearly impossible. The southern shoreline was fortified by a continuous wall, fifty feet above the coastline, interspersed with 188 towers and several small harbors. 

The Golden Horn, forming the northern boundary, provided a sheltered anchorage for the Byzantine fleet. A wall with 110 towers protected this stretch, though it was considered more vulnerable than the Marmara walls. To block naval access, a chain boom was deployed across the entrance to the Horn. This defense mechanism, supported by the Genoese, consisted of massive iron links buoyed by wooden floats, securing Constantinople from sea attacks.

The city's western side was a critical defensive line protected by Emperor Theodosius's formidable land walls. These walls, stretching four miles from the Sea of Marmara to the Golden Horn, were a testament to Roman military engineering. The initial wall, built in 413, was fortified after a devastating earthquake in 447, resulting in a dual-wall system with a moat. The walls featured five defensive zones, with 192 towers providing layered protection. Standing forty feet high, the inner wall was supplemented by an outer wall and a broad killing field, making it nearly impregnable to medieval siege tactics. The land walls were punctuated by several public and military gates, facilitating access and troop movement. 

Throughout its history, the walls of Constantinople were not only a physical barrier but also held deep spiritual significance. The city’s inhabitants believed in the divine protection of the Virgin Mary, whose sacred relics were paraded along the ramparts during sieges. This spiritual aspect was as crucial to the city's defense as the physical fortifications. Maintenance of the walls was a continuous civic duty, managed by officials like the 'Count of the Walls', ensuring repairs were promptly made. Commemorative inscriptions marked these efforts, highlighting the cooperation between divine and human endeavors in preserving the city’s defenses until the final renovation in 1433.

Constantinople's defenders maintained full cisterns and granaries as a state policy, and attackers often faced insurmountable challenges. The Avars' stone-throwing machines were ineffective, the Arabs succumbed to cold, and the Bulgar Khan Krum resorted to magic without success. Even adversaries came to believe in the city's divine protection. There were, however, two potentially weak points: the valley by the Lycus River and the area near the Golden Horn. The former’s lower towers were vulnerable to higher ground attacks, and the latter, a later addition to protect the shrine of the Virgin at Blachernae, lacked a deep moat. 

Across the Golden Horn to the north was the independent city-state of Galata (Pera). Following a treaty in 1261 with Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, Genoa gained control of Galata and governed it through a podesta. Despite an agreement forbidding fortifications, the Genoese built extensive defenses, including the Tower of Christ (now Galata Tower), walls extending to the Bosphorus and Golden Horn, and sea walls along the shoreline. 

The episode description includes links to maps of Constantinople and more information about the Theodosian walls.

Constantine XI was preparing for an inevitable war, sending urgent pleas for aid to various European powers, including his brothers in Morea, to the princes of Hungary, Aragon, Naples, Genoa, Dubrovnik, Venice, and the Pope. He offered land and islands in exchange for help. While Christian Europe became aware of the looming threat, practical assistance was limited. Pope Nicholas V persuaded the Holy Roman Emperor to warn the sultan, but it had little effect. Other powers like Naples and Venice made tentative moves but hesitated to commit fully.

Western aid to Constantinople was largely unavailable due to a complex interplay of factors. In the West, Mehmed II was viewed as an incapable youth who was unlikely to follow his father’s successful military path. His willingness to engage in diplomatic agreements gave the Christian world hope that the Ottoman Empire, particularly in Europe, would falter under his rule. This perception led to a dangerous complacency among the divided Christian powers, who, preoccupied with internal conflicts, felt no urgency to counter the Ottoman threat. 

 Francesco Filelfo, a humanist with political ambitions, saw an opportunity to influence the situation. Having spent time in Byzantium and with extensive diplomatic experience, he wrote a fervent letter to King Charles VII of France in 1451. Filelfo's letter aimed to persuade the king to lead a crusade against the Ottomans. He argued that Mehmed was a weak and inexperienced ruler and that the Ottoman military was insufficiently strong, making it an opportune moment for a decisive campaign.

Despite Filelfo’s eloquent plea, his proposal was impractical. France was embroiled in internal strife, and Pope Nicholas V’s support was conditional on the union of the Eastern and Western Churches—a controversial issue within Constantinople. Listen to Episode 28: Let the Heavens Rejoice to learn more about the attempted union of the two churches at the Council of Florence.  On the other side, many in the Greek Orthodox community viewed union with Rome as a more significant threat than Ottoman rule, recalling past Latin domination during the Fourth Crusade.  

Their fears were not ill-founded.   Alfonso of Naples, for example, harbored ambitions of his own, seeking to conquer Greek territories, including Constantinople. Although he aimed to lead a campaign against the Turks, his primary goal was to expand his influence, not to liberate the Greeks. His plans were thwarted by his political entanglements in Italy, lack of naval power, and instability within his kingdom.

The Italian city-states, particularly Venice and Genoa, prioritized their commercial interests over religious causes, leading to delays and indecision in sending help.  Venice had decided to become embroiled in the affairs of the Italian peninsula, while Genoa aimed to remain neutral but allowed the podesta in Galata significant autonomy. Many Genoese in Galata, sympathetic to their fellow Christians, would eventually cross the Golden Horn to aid in the city's defense. Venice and Genoa each harbored old animosities as commercial rivals in the Mediterranean.  Thus, the divided Christian world, distracted by internal conflicts and distrustful of one another, failed to present a unified front against the Ottoman Empire.

While the Western world lacked the unity and resolve to capitalize on the change of rulers in Edirne and drive the Ottoman Empire out of Europe, astute Byzantine observers recognized the imminent danger. Mehmed II harbored a deep-seated animosity towards Christianity and had vowed to destroy the Eastern Empire and all of Christendom. Despite this threat, Emperor Constantine XI initially did not anticipate an immediate attack on Constantinople. He sent ambassadors to Edirne to offer condolences and request the renewal of treaties. Mehmed responded by promising to uphold peace and maintain friendly relations with Byzantium, even granting the emperor an annual allowance for the upkeep of Orhan, an Ottoman prince living at the Byzantine court.

This show of conciliation allowed Mehmed to turn his attention to troubles in Anatolia. Ibrahim Bey, ruler of Karaman, aimed to reclaim western Asia Minor from the Ottomans and restore the old petty states with the help of supposed descendants of former ruling houses. He occupied several towns and fortresses, prompting Mehmed to send Ishak Pasha to quell the unrest. Dissatisfied with his initial general's inactivity, Mehmed intervened, swiftly evacuating the occupied towns. Ibrahim Bey fled but sought peace and offered his daughter's hand in marriage to Mehmed. The sultan forgave him and restored order in the region.

In February 1452, Sultan Mehmet II's intent to attack Constantinople became evident. He implemented military reforms, increased pay for palace regiments, and ordered the construction of a strategic castle on the Bosphorus. Emperor Constantine XI sought aid from European powers, particularly Venice, but once again received little support due to ongoing conflicts and political issues.

Sultan Mehmed II aimed to prevent assistance from Emperor Constantine's brothers, Demetrius and Thomas, who governed the Morea. On October 1, 1452, he dispatched General Turahan Bey and his sons to attack the despots. Their highly effective campaign captured Corinth and advanced through Arcadia and Tripolis.

In mid-March, Mehmet began castle construction, mobilizing over 6,000 workers, including 2,000 masons. The project was organized under a competitive piecework system, with rewards for quick work and severe punishments for delays. The castle was completed in just 4.5 months, demonstrating Mehmed's logistical prowess and determination.

The fortress, named "Bogaz Kesen" (Throat Cutter), later known as the European castle, Rumeli Hisari, had a triangular structure with four large towers, thirteen small towers, and walls 22 feet thick and 50 feet tall. Equipped with powerful cannons capable of firing 600-pound stone balls, it effectively controlled ship traffic through the strait.  In late 1452, a confrontation arose when three Venetian merchant ships approached, but the captains refused to pay the tolls. While two vessels managed to evade capture, the third, carrying grain for Constantinople, was targeted by cannon fire on November 25. The ship was sunk, and the crew was captured. Mehmed executed the sailors, including impaling the captain and leaving their bodies unburied in the streets.

Tensions escalated further as Mehmet provoked the Byzantines by pillaging sacred sites and raiding fields. A massacre of Greek farmers and the execution of Byzantine envoys led to the closure of Constantinople's gates and a state of war by midsummer.

The harsh winter of 1452-53 in Constantinople added to the city's woes. Severe weather, including snowstorms, heavy rain, and fog, created a gloomy atmosphere. Citizens faced earthquakes, storms, and a lack of external support, as promised Christian aid failed to arrive. The supply of food dwindled due to the Ottoman blockade, leading to a sense of despair among the populace. Orthodox priests preached fervently, and religious fervor grew. Emperor Constantine XI attempted to bolster the city's defenses by procuring food, repairing fortifications, and rallying the citizens for defense efforts. Despite material shortages, the city used available resources, including old tombstones for repairs. Public collections were organized to fund these efforts, and garrisons were sent to fortify outlying positions. In a final act of defiance, Constantine ordered raids on Ottoman coastal villages, further enraging the Turks and solidifying their resolve to conquer Constantinople.

Constantine’s secretary, George Sphrantzes, reported that only 4,983 able-bodied Greeks and around 200 foreigners, mainly Venetians and Genoese, were available for defense. Other estimates suggest there were about 7,000 defenders, highlighting a significant decline in population by 1452. The Greek philosopher and theologian Gennadius Scholarius described Constantinople as "a city of ruins, poor, and largely uninhabited."

Calls for aid to various Western powers yielded little more than empty promises. 

In the next episode, we will relive the fateful siege of Constantinople in the spring of 1453.

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