Episode 36: Twilight of the Medici

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 36
Title: Twilight of the Medici

"He always subordinated his own interest to the advantage and benefit of the community; shrank neither from trouble nor danger for the good of the State and its freedom; and devoted to that object all his thoughts and powers, securing public order by excellent laws." 
Records of the Signoria, upon Lorenzo de Medici’s death, 1492


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Lorenzo de Medici’s continuous engagement in diverse interests is a testament to a prominent aspect of his character—an insatiable enthusiasm for life. Rather than being a hindrance, his myriad activities mutually fueled each other because they all emanated from a robust personality. This endowed him with the ability to seamlessly dedicate himself to the numerous distinct interests that constituted an average day.

Remarkably, he could, in the span of a single morning, undertake a variety of tasks. This included composing or dictating a substantial number of letters, formulating instructions for an ambassador embarking on a consequential mission, participating in discussions with experts on a disputed doctrine of Greek philosophy, scrutinizing a medal or cameo for potential addition to his collection, and orchestrating the logistics for an enjoyable hunting expedition with a circle of friends.

In the tumultuous aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and the ensuing conflict, Lorenzo de' Medici found himself navigating treacherous political waters. His introspection led him to acknowledge his role in the crisis, attributing it to his deviation from the peace policy established by his grandfather and continued by his father. Departing from the triple alliance of Milan, Naples, and Florence, Lorenzo interfered with the Pope's territorial plans, leading to a catastrophic defeat.

Motivated by secular considerations, he had underestimated the Pope's retaliatory power and overestimated support from his allies Venice and Milan. However, displaying remarkable flexibility, he reversed his stance, renouncing opposition to the Pope and rekindling the alliance with Milan and Naples. Despite unsuccessful attempts to expand this alliance, Lorenzo actively mediated among the Italian states, earning a reputation as a promoter of peninsular unity.

Lorenzo's diplomatic acumen remained indispensable. Once raised, the looming threat of French intervention could only be managed by avoiding wars or war threats that might trigger it.  Recognizing the necessity of a united front, he tirelessly advocated for peace among the five major Italian states. His efforts faced resistance from rulers immersed in petty conflicts, exemplified by Sixtus IV's war with Venice and Pope Innocent VIII's prolonged conflict with King Ferrante of Naples.  Maintaining Milan's allegiance within the triple alliance and transforming Innocent VIII into an ally were crucial tasks, with Lorenzo's successful accomplishment in the latter perhaps standing as his greatest achievement.

Additionally, Lorenzo had to address smaller crises to prevent them from spiraling out of control. In 1488 alone, his mediation prevented potential upheavals following the murder of Girolamo Riario in Forli and the subsequent attempts by Milan and Rome to seize control. The murder of Faenza's ruler, Galeotto Manfredi, also posed a threat of takeover by Bologna with Milanese backing, but an agreement brokered by Lorenzo at Cafaggiolo restored independence. Lorenzo's refusal to aid conspirators in a plot against Bologna's ruling Bentivoglio family averted a situation that could have drawn the entire North Italy and the papacy into taking sides.

These instances highlight the tangible advantages Lorenzo's influence brought to Florence, a city reliant on open trade routes and friendly cities to transport and sell its goods.  Therefore, Lorenzo's peace policy, while primarily politically motivated, also bore an economic dimension. Florence's prosperity depended on trade with France, particularly in woolen and silk products. Lorenzo, fearing the French threat, sought political unity while maintaining economic ties with France.

In the face of significant disruptions to Levantine trade caused by the Turks, the Florentine economy displayed resilience despite challenges in the cloth industry due to a shortage of imported wool. Silk manufacturing emerged as a growing sector. However, the shift from investing in business to land hinted at a declining confidence in the mercantile community. Large-scale palace constructions, though ambitious, faced financial setbacks, leaving some unfinished.

While the domestic economy remained robust, international banks, including the Medici bank, encountered difficulties. Branches in northern Europe struggled to secure commodities for Italian consumers or the raw materials needed by Italian industries. Export licenses for wool increasingly required conditional loans to governments, tying up cash and hindering flexibility. This trend led to the decline of numerous Florentine banks, with the Medici bank itself approaching a collapse.  Once prosperous under Cosimo and Piero, the Medici bank faced challenges under Lorenzo.   The Medici bank's vulnerability was exacerbated by its political prestige, making it susceptible to rulers' requests for loans. The London branch, for instance, faced challenges due to extensive lending to Edward IV, leading to its closure. Lorenzo's involvement in the bank's affairs seemed insufficient, and his hands-off approach contributed to its challenges.  The failure of branches in Bruges and London, mainly due to incompetent management and risky political loans, prompted Lorenzo to intervene with substantial financial support. Despite earlier success, the Lyon branch succumbed to crises after the death of the French king in 1483.

Lorenzo's influence in Florence faced scrutiny as the bank encountered difficulties. His public image and usefulness in foreign policy negotiations were intertwined with his role as a host to visiting rulers.  In the evolving financial landscape, the costs of war were met through special loans with higher interest rates subscribed to by regime members. While providing an investment guaranteed by the state, this approach imposed financial burdens on the populace.  Lorenzo's enemies accused him of using public funds to rescue the bank, raising questions about the entanglement of private and state finances. His lavish expenditures in his role as the head of the state, (even during lean days, Lorenzo continued to entertain and contribute to public festivities), combined with declining bank fortunes, led to an ambiguous financial situation. The allegations of misappropriation from public funds, notably the public debt and dower fund for girls, lacked concrete evidence, leaving the extent of Lorenzo's involvement a matter of conjecture.

In the face of challenges posed by the Pazzi Conspiracy and the subsequent war with Sixtus IV, Lorenzo undertook a significant transformation of the political landscape in Florence. Despite initially assuming a role similar to his forebears, Lorenzo sought to fortify his position beyond previous limits. The critical juncture for this constitutional revision arose from the aftermath of the war, which brought sharp criticism in the councils of Florence, known for their popular influence.

Lorenzo, alarmed by the growing opposition to his rule, responded swiftly. Following his escape from potential destruction at the hands of Pope Sixtus IV and King Ferrante through his bold visit to Naples, as we saw at the end of Episode 33, he initiated constitutional changes. The extent to which the regime faced a genuine threat from emboldened individuals in the aftermath of his absence is uncertain. Nevertheless, upon his return, a Balia, the parliament was convened in April 1480 to deliberate on constitutional changes. Although the pretext of the city's financial urgency was invoked, the primary objective of the Balia was to tighten control over the inner circle. This was achieved by establishing a new council, the Seventy, comprising carefully selected members immune to rotation.

The Council of Seventy, designed to be the core of the government, featured members serving for life, ensuring a solid Medicean influence. While purportedly addressing financial concerns, the Seventy significantly augmented the authority of bills sent to the Councils, particularly those impacting finance, war, foreign policy, and the Constitution. Additionally, the Seventy played a crucial role in electing the Signoria, further consolidating its influence.  However, recognizing the inefficiency of a large governing body, the Seventy delegated essential powers to two permanent committees: the Eight, responsible for foreign affairs and military matters, and the Twelve, overseeing financial and commercial interests. Membership in these two bodies changed every six months, but only individuals from the Seventy were eligible.  This setup created a self-perpetuating senate with two working committees appointed from its ranks.

Crucially, Lorenzo, previously concealed as the ruler, openly participated in the Council of Seventy. His direct or indirect representation on the key executive committees underscored the emergence of a quasi-monarchy. Despite these changes, traditional forms, though hollowed, persisted. The old councils and the signory, composed of the gonfalonier and priors, were not abolished, maintaining a semblance of the nominally republican system.  While revealing Lorenzo's control more overtly, these constitutional adjustments reflected a delicate balance. The old forms stood as a testament to a public sentiment that compelled Lorenzo to refrain from an overt display of lordship. Thus, while resembling a monarchy, the new order had echoes of the traditional republican structure in Florence.

Lorenzo, from a young age, suffered from the gout he inherited from his father and grandfather. Despite seeking relief from warm baths, his health declined steadily, leading to periods of withdrawal from public life. Despite his affliction, Lorenzo's energetic nature remained intact, and he took great pleasure in activities such as hunting, hawking, and managing his estates  r.  His personal life, marked by numerous infidelities and sexual excesses, was tolerated by his wife, who bore him many children. The strategic marriages of his daughters to influential families and his son Piero's union with Alfonsina from the Orsini family reflected Lorenzo's commitment to strengthening the Medici legacy.

Lorenzo's dedication to his family surpassed even that of his predecessors, Cosimo and Piero. His family memoranda primarily focused on the honors achieved by the Medici family. Following his father’s death, Lorenzo's early ambition was to secure a cardinalship for one of his sons, a feat that genuine princely families often accomplished in Italy. In 1472, he approached Sixtus IV with this goal, but the Pazzi conspiracy and war disrupted these plans.  

However, in 1489, Lorenzo convinced Sixtus IV’s successor, Innocent VIII, to appoint his second son, Giovanni, as a cardinal, an unusual honor for a thirteen-year-old. Lorenzo considered this achievement a significant milestone for the Medici house. When Giovanni traveled to Rome in 1492 to meet his colleagues at the Vatican, Lorenzo, unable to participate in the celebration due to his illness, advised him to prioritize the interests of the Church. Simultaneously, he subtly encouraged Giovanni to contribute to the welfare of the city and the Medici family, showcasing Lorenzo's strategic thinking and dedication to the family legacy.

 In early 1492, Lorenzo de Medici's prolonged struggle against his inherited illness abruptly turned for the worse. Carried to the villa at Careggi, where his father and grandfather had also passed away, Lorenzo sought solace in the company of two men he had protected— the poet Angelo Poliziano and the philosopher Pico della Mirandola. Facing his deteriorating health, Lorenzo made a seemingly unusual decision to call for Girolamo Savonarola, a preacher whose sermons had previously portrayed Lorenzo as a tyrant, perverter of law, and oppressor of the poor.

Savonarola's controversial visit to Lorenzo's deathbed, marked by conflicting accounts, adds a layer of intrigue to the historical record. Though disputed, the circumstances surrounding Lorenzo's final moments are discussed, with the Savonarolist version gaining prominence in historical narratives.

Girolamo Savonarola, a native of Ferrara, underwent a profound spiritual transformation that led him to become a Dominican friar. Following training at a Bologna monastery, he embarked on preaching missions through Tuscany. Initially unsuccessful in Florence, his return in 1490 marked a remarkable triumph. Savonarola delivered powerful sermons at the monastery of San Marco and the cathedral, vehemently condemning the church's corruption and predicting its purification.

Elected prior of San Marco, Savonarola demonstrated his uncompromising stance by refusing to pay customary respects to the Medici, the hereditary patron. Despite Lorenzo's attempts to dissuade Savonarola through threats, bribes, and even the intervention of another preacher, Fra Mariano, the friar persisted in using Lorenzo as a symbol of injustice. Recommended by Pico for his learning and religious zeal, Lorenzo had supported Savonarola by not interfering when he was elected prior of San. Marco.

Despite this public hostility, Lorenzo, impressed by Savonarola's rectitude, purportedly requested the friar's presence on his deathbed. Poliziano, an eyewitness, recounted this episode in a letter, describing Savonarola's call for repentance and granting his blessing at Lorenzo's behest.  The historical narrative, however, takes a twist after Savonarola's death. A more colorful version emerged, propagated by devoted followers who reshaped the past in their unwavering faith to fit their perception of his divine mission. This altered account suggests Lorenzo's penance involved affirming true faith, restoring allegedly misappropriated property, and returning Florence's stolen liberty. Lorenzo's refusal reportedly led to Savonarola condemning him to eternal fire.

While this Dominican version is likely biased and lacks credible authority, it gained widespread acceptance and persists in historical records. Despite the challenges in accepting its accuracy, it remains a notable part of Lorenzo's life story, depicting the intriguing and disputed circumstances surrounding the political figure's departure with the dramatic backdrop of religious thunder.  Savonarola will play a crucial role in events in Florence after Lorenzo’s death.

Lorenzo's demise occurred early on Sunday, April 8, 1492. In keeping with family tradition, he was buried in the old sacristy of San Lorenzo, avoiding any unnecessary pomp. In 1559, his coffin was moved to Michelangelo's new sacristy and placed in a vault beneath the statue of the Madonna. 

Despite his relatively brief life span of forty-three years, one might argue that the measure of existence should be gauged by the richness of experiences rather than mere duration. In this light, Lorenzo's life could be considered enviable.  

Although it's easier to recognize his stature than to define his status, Lorenzo faced accusations of tyranny from political adversaries. Posthumously, writers described him as someone who could sway all citizens with a single gesture, emphasizing his considerable impact.

Cautious to avoid the label of a signore, he stressed that he held a unique privilege among fellow citizens. Only a law enacted in 1481, which identified any plot against him as a conspiracy against the state, spoke of the unique nature of his position. Beyond this, no specific laws or rights defined his role, and at his death, he was officially recognized as the leading citizen of Florence.

Engaging in critical commissions and councils, such as the Hundred, the Seventy, and the Seventeen, Lorenzo was one among many with comparable public service records. Governmental records, though incomplete, suggest that decisions did not always align with Lorenzo's wishes. The conciliar system, described as pro-Medici, was volatile and subject to changes in Lorenzo's relationship with the regime and the regime's connection to the community.

The Florentines generally held deep admiration and affection for him, a sentiment that persisted despite a persistent, albeit minor, opposition that continually chipped away at his reputation. However, the rapid dissipation of this favorable opinion is noteworthy. As we will see in upcoming episodes, his unfortunate son and heir, Piero, faced expulsion from Florence two years after Lorenzo's passing.  This development led the succeeding republican rulers to consign Lorenzo to oblivion.

Subsequently, Lorenzo's reputation failed to experience a revival, and the lack of such a resurgence is evident in the absence of any monument dedicated to perpetuating his memory. The small yet persistent faction of opposition, coupled with political shifts, cast a shadow over his legacy, preventing a collective acknowledgment of his worth that might have otherwise led to a tangible tribute to his memory.

In the next episode, we will broaden our view outside of Florence and examine the affairs of Italy.   It will be these affairs that will precipitate the eventual downfall of the Medici in Florence.

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