Episode 40: A Certain Friar

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 40
Title: A Certain Friar

“If he was good, we have seen a great prophet in our time; if bad, we have seen a very great man, because for years ... he knew how to feign in public so remarkable an enterprise, without ever being found in a falsehood, that one must confess that he had the most profound judgment, genius, and imagination.” 
Francesco Guicciardini, History of Florence, 1540

Welcome back to the I Take History With My Coffee podcast where we explore history in the time it takes to drink a cup of coffee.


My original intention had been to tell the tale of Savonarola’s downfall, arrest, trial, and execution in one episode.  But as I worked with the material, I realized there was too much territory to cover, so to speak, to condense into thirty minutes adequately.  So, I’ve opted to break it up into two episodes.  In this episode, we will focus on Savonarola’s conflict with Pope Alexander VI and trace how public opinion in Florence eventually turned against him.  The next episode will cover his arrest, trial, and execution.  And conclude with a brief look at the debate on whether Savonarola could be considered a forerunner to the Protestant Reformation. 

In the previous episode, we introduced Savonarola in his role in overthrowing the Medici and establishing a new government in Florence.  He was also influential in reshaping the social mores of Florentine society.  At moments like these in history, we often wonder how people were swayed into acting in the ways they did.  Florence had been the cultural hub of Europe and a well-respected leader in foreign affairs.  How did the citizens of this culturally refined city succumb to Savonarola’s power and drastically change their behaviors?  Perhaps the answer is found by looking at our own time.  History doesn’t necessarily repeat itself, but it does echo: Disillusionment, economic disparity, social unrest, a foreign crisis, failure of leadership, and a charismatic demagogue.

For nearly four years, the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola influenced Florence's politics, society, and religion.  Savonarola, a master for Dominican novices in different cities, possessed extensive training in logic, philosophy, and theology. Revered for his mastery in these studies, he emphasized the interplay between faith and reason in his worldview. Drawing from various philosophical traditions, Savonarola argued that the intellect allows humans to transcend sensory experience and gain knowledge of God. While recognizing the role of natural reason, he contended that a more profound understanding requires divine illumination rooted in faith. This emphasis mirrored the intellectual climate of 15th-century Europe, where scholars grappled with the relationship between faith and reason.  

Deeply rooted in medieval Christian philosophy, Savonarola envisioned humanity as noble and perfectable, created in God's image. His perspective highlighted the capacity of individuals to elevate themselves spiritually through free will and faith. Placing man in the middle of the hierarchy of created beings, Savonarola echoed prevailing theological ideas of his time, emphasizing humans' profound role in their journey towards God.

Savonarola's beliefs incorporated distinctive theological concepts of predestination and salvation. Similar to Reformers like Luther and Calvin, he embraced predestination, categorizing individuals into the elect destined for salvation and others condemned to damnation. However, unlike later thinkers, Savonarola did not adopt an elitist social view based on these distinctions, asserting that individuals could actively participate in their salvation through their will and actions.

Savonarola's philosophy centered on the transformative power of Christian faith, highlighting key moments in Christ's life as the basis for God's love and the promise of salvation. He sees human life as a continual spiritual battle, where individuals strive for salvation by overcoming sin through God's grace and the Church's sacraments. His critique targets moral corruption within the Church, especially among its governing figures.  His call for renewal extended to societal reforms in Florence, condemning extravagance and corruption.

The impact of Savonarola's preaching emerges as a formidable force, even though we lack explicit descriptions of his delivery. It is presumed that he employed every available means, both rhetorical and theatrical, to resonate with the hearts and minds of his massed audience. The challenge was monumental, given that he sought to sway a populace characterized not as 'obedient sheep' but as 'proud lions, cruel bears, rapacious wolves, dishonest pigs, and other wild beasts.’

Even the skeptical and worldly Niccolo Machiavelli, who attended several of Savonarola's sermons, conceded that the Friar, without performing miracles, managed to persuade a 'vast' number of Florentines that he communicated with God. The scent of holiness and the power to evoke conviction emanated from Savonarola's bearing, sermons, and delivery.

To comprehend Savonarola's methods, it is essential to consider the context of fifteenth-century preaching. Renaissance preachers, traversing a land of dialects in Italy, had to adapt their voices and diction to gain stature as speakers and religious figures. The most prominent among them were in high demand, with princes and cities competing for their services. The scarcity of the requisite talent made these preachers a sought-after commodity, especially during the crucial sermon cycles of Lent and Advent.

Savonarola's initial struggle as a preacher in Florence, a city proud of its linguistic refinement, might be attributed, in part, to his failure to adjust his speaking style to fit the city's refined norms. Upon his return, having gained experience in other cities, he endeavored to 'Florentinise' his delivery, incorporating popular expressions while toning down his distinctive northern sounds.

Theatricality in preaching was not uncommon, with preachers incorporating dramatic elements such as weeping, crying out, striking the air, falling to their knees, and even displaying complete body armor.   Savonarola acknowledged the potential for theatricality in sermons, providing detailed outline notes for himself. These notes suggest actions like lifting the Crucifix high and crying out 'Misericordia!' or taking out a nail and exclaiming 'O Lord.'

Ultimately, however, the efficacy of a preacher rested on the power of their voice, words, and gestures. Savonarola's journey in refining these elements reflected not only the challenges of his time but also his determination to connect with and influence his audience through the artistry of preaching. 

It has to be noted that early on, Savonarola recognized the revolutionary potential of a technological innovation: the printing press.  Savonarola astutely harnessed the printing press to disseminate his messages.  His prolific writings, ranging from doctrinal works to sermons, became a remarkable feature of the Florentine printing scene.  Printing enabled him to challenge the prevailing narrative controlled by the papal authorities and reach a wider audience beyond Florence and Italy.  His success at utilizing the power of the printing press predated Martin Luther’s efforts over two decades later.  

As criticism and political opposition ramped up, Savonarola's rhetoric intensified, portraying the world as a battlefield between the forces of God and the devil. Threats from Rome prompted him to use rhetorical dualism, vividly depicting a world torn between opposing spiritual armies.

Threats from Rome would soon turn into actions.
  
Pope Alexander VI, born Rodrigo Borgia in 1431 in Valencia, Spain, symbolized the corrupt Renaissance papacy of late 15th-century Rome. Born into minor Catalan nobility, his rise to power was linked to his uncle, Alonso, who became Pope Calixtus III. Rodrigo's journey to cardinalship showcased his political and diplomatic skills, serving in various ecclesiastical roles before his papacy.

A key player in papal elections, Rodrigo's charm and political acumen secured his position, leading to his election as Pope Alexander VI in 1492. As pope, he focused on consolidating power and expanding the Papal States, employing diplomatic maneuvers and forming alliances, albeit controversially relying on nepotism.

Alexander VI's papacy was marked by infamous family political machinations, including accusations of corruption and incest. His son, Cesare Borgia, gained notoriety for military campaigns and political intrigue. Despite controversies, some viewed Alexander VI as a necessary political leader for the troubled Renaissance Church, emphasizing political prowess over spiritual matters.

Facing challenges after the fall of the Medici and the French invasion of Italy, Alexander VI dealt with issues like the Orsini lords' revolt, rebellious cardinals, and foreign policy concerns. Only in early 1495 did he pay heed to a certain friar.   Savonarola's rising influence in Florence became a concern. Reports of Savonarola's perceived threats reached the Pope, who saw the friar as an obstacle to forming the Holy League against France, a crucial part of the Pope’s foreign policy.

The Pope initially invited Savonarola to Rome through a papal brief to discuss his supposed ability to foresee the future. Suspecting danger, Savonarola declined, citing illness and the presence of enemies. Tensions rose as enemies influenced a subsequent brief accusing him of heresy and ordering an inquiry, threatening excommunication. Savonarola promptly refuted the accusations and appealed to canon law, highlighting the danger he faced in leaving Florence.

In October 1495, a new brief canceled the order for Savonarola to go to Rome but maintained the suspension of preaching. The Pope expressed concern about Savonarola's prophetic claims, temporarily silencing him and maintaining order in Florence. Despite the preaching ban, Savonarola continued to play a role in the religious and political landscape through writings and his presence.

During the 120-day official silence, Florence lobbied for Savonarola's preaching rights. The Signory defended him, emphasizing his virtues and the city's need for his preaching. Despite opposition, Savonarola was ordered to give the 1496 Lenten sermons. Behind the scenes, supporters in Rome worked to secure the Pope's oral consent for his return to the pulpit.

The Lenten sermons began, and reports reached the Pope, who complained about Savonarola's preaching. Florentine leaders defended him, stating he criticized princes, not attacking the Church or the Pope. The Pope grew increasingly unhappy though. In March 1496, Florentine ambassadors reported the Pope's discontent, citing charges against Savonarola, including preaching against the Pope's will, openly criticizing the Church, claiming prophetic abilities, empowering the people, and causing shame to the city. Despite the threat of declaring him a heretic, internal struggles in Rome and promises from supporters delayed the decision amid mounting economic and financial problems in Florence.

In the vibrant and culturally rich city of Florence, renowned for its literary atmosphere, Savonarola’s Florentine detractors, fully aware of the impact of the Friar's rhetoric, were particularly inclined to fear and condemn him.  This opposition manifested in derogatory terms for his followers, such as "Wailers" (piagnoni) and "bigots" (pinzocheroni).  Among the disdainful labels, "piagnoni" became a distinctive term for his devoted supporters, even though it originated as a derogatory reference to those who wept or expressed strong emotions during sermons. Remarkably, the followers embraced the nickname, feeling pride in being labeled as "wailers" or "cry-babies."

From the outset of his charismatic preaching in Florence, Savonarola faced opposition, viewing it as his God-given destiny. Recognizing the challenges posed by a mercenary Church and unscrupulous political leaders, he anticipated the inevitable emergence of adversaries, aware that they would soon clamor for his downfall. 

Recognizing the pivotal role his claim of being a prophet played in his influence in Florence and on the broader European stage, Savonarola's adversaries sought to undermine his standing. The accusations against Savonarola intensified, including being viewed as a false, wicked, and seducing prophet and facing charges of heresy and schism. The attacks came from theological opponents and clergy in outlying towns and culminated in a papal argument emphasizing the importance of obedience to the popes. 

In the face of these growing challenges, Savonarola's position in Florence remained strong, as indicated by the support he received from critical figures like Francesco Valori.  As noted in the last episode, Florence witnessed fervent displays of Savonarolan influence, such as successful pious 'carnivals' and efforts to silence critics. 

As tensions mounted, Pope Alexander signed the brief of excommunication against Savonarola in May 1497. The excommunication prohibited Savonarola from participating in the Church's sacraments and required all Christians to avoid him. The response within Florence was divided, with supporters and opponents of Savonarola shaping the narrative and influencing public opinion.

Savonarola, facing excommunication, refused to comply with the Curia's conditions for its repeal. These conditions required him to go to Rome seeking the Pope's pardon or have his friars dissolve the convent of San Marco. Notably, both options would entail abandoning his life's work—the renewal and reform of the Church.

 During July-August 1497 and January-February 1498, Pro-Savonarola Signories were voted in and urged their ambassadors in Rome to work towards removing the excommunication. However, despite these efforts, Savonarola and the republic faced more adversaries than allies in Rome; influential figures such as the Cardinals Giovanni de Medici and Ascanio Sforza.  The Duke of Milan, the Venetian Republic, and Florentine aristocrats all demanded further censures against Florence and Savonarola.

The autumn of 1497 saw a potential thaw. Talk of Charles VIII's return to Italy and the Holy League's attempt to entice Florence by promising the restoration of Pisa to Florentine hands raised hopes. There were indications that allies might be willing to reconsider the "problem" of Savonarola. Encouraged by key supporters, Savonarola sent a strong supplicating letter to the Pope in October, seeking reconciliation. However, this effort proved to be a "slippery rhetorical exercise," and nothing positive resulted from it.  

Florence teetered on the edge, with famine, political tensions, and external threats converging.  In this climate, Bernardo del Nero emerged as a central player. Rising from modest origins under the patronage of the Medici, he navigated through various political offices and became a politico of considerable prowess. Though lacking in Latin, Bernardo had an affinity for literary circles, such as Marsilio Ficini’s Platonic Academy, earning a reputation for learning. However, among his republican enemies, he was regarded as cruel, rapacious, and ambitiously overreaching.

He was appointed Gonfalonier of Justice in March 1497 and found himself at the helm of a government divided over a certain friar. Despite being hostile to Savonarola, Bernardo faced a problem taking action due to the uncertain political climate and the slim majority held by the friar’s supporters.  As Savonarola's excommunication loomed, Bernardo, known for his resourcefulness, became a crucial figure. 

Meanwhile, Piero de Medici, ever on the move seeking support for a triumphant return, saw an opportune moment in the spring of 1497 with Bernardo leading the Florentine government.  The city, alerted to Piero's troop movements, took precautionary measures.

Events took a dramatic turn on April 28, 1497, as Piero and his troops, delayed by rain, waited outside the city walls. Bernardo del Nero gave the appearance of cooperating with the city's defensive stance. A reconciliation committee, comprising of Medici sympathizers and opponents, had failed to reach a consensus on Savonarola's fate. The government's decision not to sound the alarm bell on the morning of Piero's arrival was interpreted as a move to protect pro-Medicean nobility from public outrage.  It became a source of suspicion.

Events unfolded without significant opposition from within the city. A group of hostages, including suspected allies of Piero, was held in the Palazzo Signoria. Piero's venture ultimately failed, and he departed for Siena that evening. The government's handling of the crisis without sounding the alarm bell, as detailed by eyewitness accounts, became a subject of speculation and raised questions about the motivations of officials like Bernardo del Nero.


The events of April 28 heightened tensions in Florence. The situation worsened when an anti-Savonarolan Signory assumed office for two months starting May 1. Within four days, a violent incident occurred in the cathedral targeting Savonarola's preaching, triggering a near riot. Rumors and heated quarrels engulfed the agitated city. Piero de Medici's plot assumed a more ominous tone. Suspicions arose about his close ties with select citizens in Florence, suggesting they might have been privy to his April plans. Although no evidence of treason emerged then, the Signory of May-June showed little interest in pursuing the matter. However, the subsequent Signory of July-August, aligned with the Savonarolan faction, managed to elicit the desired testimony against a circle of conspirators in the early days of August.

The informant was one Lamberto dell'Antella, a fervent supporter of Piero de' Medici. His allegiance to the Medici family raised suspicions, leading to his arrest, questioning, and exile.  Lamberto's disclosures triggered a chain of accusations involving prominent Florentines. Notable figures such as Giovanni di Bernardo Cambi and Giannozzo Pucci were implicated for their connections with the Medici and alleged involvement in supporting Piero's plans. The revelations extended to others higher up the food chain, namely Bernardo del Nero, Niccolò Ridolfi, and Lorenzo Tornabuoni. The accused faced severe consequences, ranging from loss of political rights and exile to death sentences. 

The trial of the five conspirators took place on August 21, 1497, in an atmosphere of suspicion and accusation. Confessions linking them to Piero's arrival on April 28th were presented, and all five were found guilty of treason.  The accused chose to appeal to the Great Council, causing intense debate and disagreement within the government.

Final deliberations on the appeal took place on the same day. Arguments for and against the appeal focused on the urgency of the situation, potential uprisings, and the right of the accused to defend themselves.  The debate went on late into the night.  The appeal was ultimately denied with a narrow majority voting against granting it. The decision was influenced by fears of external threats and a belief in the imminent danger to the state.

Early on the morning of August 22, within minutes of the decision, the executioner was informed, and families were allowed a brief visit. Priests arrived to hear confessions.  At 4 AM, the five men were executed in the courtyard of the Bargello, the seat of justice in Florence. Hay was used to cover the signs of each beheading.

Throughout the morning, the news of the executions spread through the city. No special announcement was ever made. An oath had been imposed on those who delivered the original verdict, prohibiting them from divulging details under penalty of 500 gold florins. 

The executions sent a chill through the citizens of Florence.  A rushed trial, a secret execution in the pre-dawn hours.  This was not how prominent individuals were punished.  The status of such men afforded them exile and confiscation of property, but not death.  Machiavelli pointed to these executions as a turning point for Savonarola’s support among Florentines.  From this moment, his popularity began to falter, owing to his failure to step in and rescue the men from a government filled with his supporters.  But this is Machiavelli writing fifteen years after the fact.  If the friar was losing support, it was due to other factors such as his excommunication, the failure of Charles VIII to return to Italy, and the continuing rebellion in Pisa.

Despite the executions, Florentine public opinion did not turn against Savonarola by late 1497.  He resumed preaching, reigniting the controversy with Rome. Savonarola's new sermons only fueled Alexander's fury and threats of interdict on Florence.  On February 26, 1498, Papal briefs demanded the friar's arrest, but the Florentine government simply apologized and tacitly allowed Savonarola to continue preaching.  But Savonarola had escalated his attacks on Rome and the Curia in late February and March, dismissing the validity of the excommunication and labeling those behind it as 'heretics.' Despite his outcast status, his return to the pulpit was met with joyous crowds.  In a bold move on March 13th, Savonarola writes a final letter to the Pope, warning about the state of the Pope’s immortal soul and drafting letters to the kings of Spain and France and Emperor Maximilian, inviting them to convene a universal Church Council to depose Pope Alexander VI.

The time for negotiations was over.  The Papal Curia demanded action.  
In Florence as well, there were hints of growing hostility toward the friar as the government considered the ramifications of a papal interdict on Florentine commerce.

In the next episode, we will trace the whirlwind of events that will lead to Savonarola’s arrest, trial, and execution.

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