Episode 42: The Warrior Pope

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 42
Title: The Warrior Pope

"The Pope is determined to be lord and master of the world's game." 
Domenico Trevisano, the Venetian ambassador, referring to Pope Julius II, in his report to the Venetian Signory, dated April 1, 1510.

Welcome back to the I Take History With My Coffee podcast.  History in the time it takes to drink a cup of coffee.


One will need a scorecard for this episode.  In the years after Charles VIII’s ill-fated invasion of Italy, players will continually switch teams to suit their self-interests.  Former adversaries will become friends and then quickly become adversaries once more.  The result would be nearly two decades of political upheaval and warfare across the Italian peninsula.  In the episode description, I have posted links to the dynastic lineages of the major powers, as well as maps of the major battles.

To catch up on where affairs stood at the end of episode 38, Charles VIII had departed Italy in the summer of 1495 after the battle of Fornovo.  Within months, King Ferdinand II of Naples had regained much of the territory he had lost to the French.  The Medici had been expelled in Florence, and Savonarola was on the rise.  

Charles VIII considered another invasion of Italy, but he had exhausted his treasury, and France was heavily in debt.  He would never have another opportunity, though.  In 1498, while attending a game of tennis, the king hit his head upon a door lintel.  When he returned from the tennis match, he fell into a sudden coma and died shortly afterward.  Since he had no living children, the throne would pass to his brother-in-law and second cousin once removed, the Duke of Orleans.  He would be crowned as Louis XII.  

In Naples, King Ferdinand II died of malaria in the fall of 1496.  He had just celebrated his wedding and, therefore, had no children.  The throne passed to his uncle, Frederick.  Frederick I would be the last member of the Aragonese dynasty to sit on the Neapolitan throne.  

In October 1494, the titular duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, died under suspicious circumstances.  Contemporaries say the young duke was poisoned by his uncle, Ludovico Sforza, who immediately installed himself as the new Duke of Milan.  Ludovico was unhappy with the results of Charles VIII’s campaign in Italy.  He had hoped the French would be a distraction.  He counted on the other Italian city-states, especially Florence, to offer more resistance.  Instead, Piero de Medici threw himself at the mercy of the French king.  Worrying about the excessive influence of the French in the region, Ludovico sided with the League of Venice against France.   

Florence, caught up in Savonarola’s spell, smarted from the loss of Pisa.  The Pisans had taken advantage of the French invasion and declared themselves independent.  They garnered support from Venice, Genoa, and Milan, who sought to counter Florentine power.  Ludovico, wishing to solidify his position, once more looked to an external power to settle Italian affairs.  This time, it was Emperor Maximilian I.  The emperor wanted to shore up the League of Venice, which he viewed as the best barrier to further French intervention.  Florence was suspicious and felt Maximilian favored Pisa.  They refused mediation, and Maximilian briefly invaded Italy in the summer of 1496.  

Upon his ascension to the throne, Louis XII of France inherited the Angevin claim to Naples, and he asserted his claim to the Duchy of Milan through his grandmother, Valentina Visconti. Louis made peace with most of his neighbors and sought an alliance with the Republic of Venice to remove Ludovico from power.  This resulted in the Treaty of Blois in February 1499 and paved the way for Louis's invasion of Milan with Venetian support.  As Milanese strongholds fell to the French, Ludovico, now without allies, fled Milan with his children. He took refuge with Maximilian I.  Louis XII made a triumphant entry into Milan on October 6, 1499.  

At this point, Florence requested that Louis support their retaking of Pisa, but the French monarch was in no hurry to oblige since Florence had done nothing to help in his taking the Duchy of Milan.  Besides, he was occupied with Ludovico’s attempts at reclaiming the duchy.  This problem was solved when Ludovico was captured near Novara in April 1500.  The Sforza Duke of Milan would spend the rest of his life in French custody.  But Louis still needed Florence on his side as he would need to cross through Tuscan territory on his way to Naples.  A combined Franco-Florentine army besieged Pisa at the end of June 1500.  Though the French artillery did its job opening up the walls, several assaults were turned away by the Pisans.

Louis decided not to linger, and with Milan in his control, he departed back to France and left the Florentines to continue to blockade Pisa.  It would be nine years before the city finally surrendered.  Meanwhile, concerns over Spanish intentions prompted Louis XII to negotiate the Treaty of Granada in 1500, in which he agreed to become King of Naples while Ferdinand II of Aragon retained control of other territories in southern Italy. (Ferdinand was married to Isabella of Castile.  This is Ferdinand and Isabella, who commissioned Columbus to find a westward route to the Indies in 1492.)

French forces arrived at Capua in July 1501.  Supporters of Frederick I of Naples strongly defended the city, but it surrendered on July 24 after a brief siege.  The city was sacked and suffered cruelly under the French occupiers.  Resistance crumbled as other towns sought to avoid a similar outcome.  On October 12, Louis appointed the Duke of Nemours as his viceroy in Naples.  However, disputes over the allocation of territory eventually led to friction between France and Spain.

The conflict resumed in the latter part of 1502, with Spanish forces under General Gonzalo de Cordoba facing off against the French. Despite being outnumbered, Cordoba leveraged tactics learned from previous engagements and the effectiveness of the Spanish tercios, men skilled in close combat due to the Reconquista, to counter the French. Back in 1495, at the Battle of Seminara, the Spanish army had suffered a significant defeat against the invading French forces, composed of powerful heavy cavalry and Swiss mercenary infantry. This defeat prompted a thorough reorganization of the Spanish army and tactics under the leadership of Córdoba, known as the "Great Captain." Recognizing the superiority of the French cavalry and Swiss pikes in sheer offensive power, Córdoba devised a new strategy that combined the shooting capabilities of firearms with the defensive strength of pikes.

Initially called a colunella or "colonelcy," this mixed infantry formation was commanded by a colonel and consisted of men in close order armed with pikes, interspersed with looser formations armed with firearms, particularly the arquebus.  Known as the  Pike and Shot formation, pikemen were positioned in the front ranks to form a dense hedge of long pikes.  This created a formidable barrier against enemy cavalry charges. Behind the pikemen, arquebuses were positioned in staggered formations, allowing them to fire through the gaps between the pikemen. This arrangement provided mutual support, with the pikemen protecting the arquebusiers from cavalry and the arquebusiers providing covering fire to disrupt enemy formations.

Initially, Cordoba avoided confrontation, aiming to catch the French off guard. But as skirmishes happened, Spanish superiority became evident. The Spanish navy also ensured a steady supply line, further tipping the scales in Cordoba's favor. The turning point came with the Spanish victory at Cerignola in April 1503, followed by successes at the battles of Garigliano in November and December of the same year.

This innovative pike-and-shot tactic proved successful at the Battle of Cerignola, where the outnumbered Spanish pike-and-shot forces, positioned defensively, decisively defeated the attacking French calvary and Swiss mercenaries. The victory demonstrated the effectiveness of  Córdoba's strategy and marked a significant turning point in Renaissance warfare.  The decisive battle dealt a final blow to the French, prompting King Louis XII to relinquish his ambitions in Naples and retreat to Lombardy. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Lyon in January 1504, through which France conceded Naples to the Spanish Monarchy while acknowledging French territorial gains in northern Italy, especially the Duchy of Milan.

Italy would enjoy a brief respite before hostilities resumed again in 1508.  This time, it was led by one of the most militant popes in papal history: Pope Julius II.

Pope Julius II, born Giuliano della Rovere in 1443, came from a noble family in Savona, Liguria, Italy. He received a humanist education, greatly influencing his later patronage of the arts and letters. Early in his ecclesiastical career, he demonstrated his political acumen by serving as a diplomat for his uncle, Pope Sixtus IV.  In 1471, he was appointed bishop of Carpentras, and in an overt act of nepotism, he was immediately made a cardinal.  He held various influential positions and served as the vice-chancellor of the Church under Pope Sixtus IV and Pope Innocent VIII. Throughout his career, he proved to be a shrewd diplomat and skilled politician known for his grandeur and patronage of leading artists like Michelangelo and Raphael.  However, his focus on secular matters overshadowed religious concerns, leading him to become involved in the political struggles between France and Spain, aiming to liberate Italy from their influence. 

Upon his election to the papacy in 1503, he took the name Julius II not to honor the first pope of that name but to reference Julius Caesar.  He embarked on an ambitious program to strengthen the papacy's authority and expand the Papal States' territorial holdings.

Following the First Italian War, Pope Alexander VI, with French support, aimed to strengthen Papal control in central Italy by taking over the Romagna region. Cesare Borgia, leading the Papal armies, expelled the ruling Bentivoglio family from Bologna and began establishing a Borgia state. However, upon Alexander's death in 1503, Cesare's power waned. He couldn't secure Rome due to French and Spanish interference in the Papal conclave. The election of Pius III (who died shortly after) and Julius II afterward resulted in Cesare being stripped of his titles.

Julius II was a formidable military leader, often leading troops in campaigns to defend the Papal States and assert papal authority over the Italian peninsula.  His aggressive and militaristic approach would earn him the nickname "the Warrior Pope."  The dispossessed lords of Romagna had sought Venetian aid against Cesare.  This led to Venice seizing several cities in 1503.  At the head of his papal army, Julius II captured Cesare and demanded Venice return the cities.  Though Venice acknowledged Papal authority and paid tribute, it refused to surrender the cities. Julius formed an alliance with France and the Holy Roman Empire against Venice. The souring relations among the parties hastened the early demise of this alliance in 1504. Despite some gains, Julius needed more forces to confront Venice directly, focusing instead on reconquering Bologna and Perugia.

In 1507, the pope resumed his efforts, urging Emperor Maximilian I to attack Venice. Maximilian's failed attempts in 1508, including the Battle of Cadore, led to Venetian victories and the seizing of Imperial territories along the Adriatic Sea. Ultimately, Maximilian agreed to a truce with Venice, halting further hostilities.

That spring, Julius was provoked again by Venice's actions.  The Venetians had defied the pope by appointing its candidate to the bishopric of Vicenza.  

" I shall one day reduce your Venice to its original condition of a little fishing hamlet," said the Pope to the Venetian envoy Pisani; and the haughty patrician replied without hesitation: "And we, Holy Father, if you are not more reasonable, shall reduce you to the condition of a village priest." This shows how heated and personal the quarrel had become. 

This led to the pope forming the League of Cambrai. This alliance included the Papacy, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Ferdinand II of Aragon, and it aimed to dismantle Venice's Italian territory and divide it among the members of the alliance.

In response to this imminent threat, Venice quickly assembled an army of around 50,000 soldiers. However, typical of the Italian city-states, internal disagreements among the Venetian command hindered their ability to effectively oppose the advancing forces. On May 9, 1509, Louis XII of France crossed the Adda River with a large army. The Battle of Agnadello saw the Venetian army defeated, leading to a collapse of Venetian defenses. Subsequently, Venice lost all the territory it had accumulated over the 15th century. Those cities, including Padua, not occupied by the French, submitted themselves to the emissaries of Emperor Maximilian I.  But the imperial governors proved unpopular.  Padua revolted and returned to Venetian control in mid-July.  Meanwhile, the pope declared an interdict against Venice and invaded the Romagna, capturing Ravenna with the assistance of Alfonso d'Este.   

Despite these initial setbacks, Venice managed to mount a counteroffensive. The Venetian forces recaptured several cities and defeated a Papal army under Francesco II of Gonzaga. However, a Venetian river attack on Ferrara failed, which led to further losses.  Facing financial and manpower shortages, the Venetian Senate sought to negotiate with Julius II. The terms imposed by the Pope were harsh, including relinquishing Venetian powers and territories. Despite initially accepting the terms, Venice later deemed them invalid and prepared to resist.

In 1510, though, Julius grew concerned about the increasing French influence in Italy.  He attempted to rally the other Italian states, presenting himself as the defender of Italian liberty.  He raised the war cry, “Fuori Barbari!” “Put the barbarians out!”    But Florence and other Italian states refused to join.  Meanwhile, the pope’s relationship with Alfonso d'Este had become strained. Julius devised plans to seize the Duchy of Ferrara, a French ally, and incorporate its territory into the Papal States. Lacking sufficient forces, he hired Swiss mercenaries to attack the French in Milan and sought an alliance with Venice against Louis XII.

By July, the Veneto-Papal alliance launched an offensive. Despite a setback in Genoa, Venetian troops recaptured Vicenza and Modena. Julius excommunicated Alfonso d'Este, thereby justifying an attack on Ferrara.

However, the French army, unopposed by the Swiss mercenaries who had been bribed to leave, marched southward. In October, Charles II d'Amboise advanced on Bologna, prompting Julius to realize the city's open hostility towards the Papacy. With limited defenses, Julius resorted to excommunicating d'Amboise and withdrew to Ravenna when the French approached.

In December 1510, D'Amboise's death briefly disrupted French plans, but Alfonso d'Este's victory over Venetian forces on the Po River isolated Bologna again. When a French army approached Bologna in May 1511, the citizens revolted, expelling the Papal-appointed commander. 

Julius II initiated a Holy League against France in the autumn of 1511.  The alliance of the pope, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and England aimed to counter French expansionism and regain lost territories. Julius called on Florence to support the revised national effort against France, but Florence, still loyal to France, once more rejected the plea. A young Florentine diplomat named Niccolo Machiavelli, warned against committing to France or Spain,  instead advocating for self-preservation over loyalty.  

Louis XII of France appointed Gaston de Foix to lead French forces in Italy.  Demonstrating more vigor than his predecessors, Foix sacked Brescia and besieged Ravenna in collaboration with Alfonso d'Este.  The Holy League engaged the French at the Battle of Ravenna in April 1512.  This resulted in a French victory but with Foix's death. Afterward, the League's Swiss mercenaries, supported by Milanese forces, forced the French out of Lombardy by August 1512.

The League members convened in Mantua in late August 1512 to discuss territorial arrangements. Part of the discussion was about the Medici family still in exile.  The fortunes of the Medici had begun to improve with Julius's ascent to the papacy. Cardinal Giovanni de Medici had garnered support from those disillusioned with the misrule under Gonfaloniere Piero Soderini in Florence. As dissatisfaction grew, the desire for the Medici's return intensified. With Spanish assistance, Julius II enforced the return of the Medici family to power in Florence after defeating the Florentine militia at Prato. The siege of Prato and subsequent atrocities perpetrated by Spanish troops led to Soderini being ousted, and the Medici returned to power without significant resistance. Their return was met with tacit approval from the populace, weary of years of misgovernment, and marked by a policy of forgiveness and reconciliation.

However, the members of the League faced disagreements over the fate of Milan, Ferrara, and Venetian territories. Julius II insisted on retaining Milan for Maximilian Sforza, the son of Ludovico, while Ferdinand of Aragon opposed the annexation of Ferrara by the Papal States. Fundamental disagreements over territorial division led to tensions, with Venice eventually siding with France again against the League. In March 1513, another treaty was signed at Blois, dividing northern Italy between France and Venice.

The death of Julius II in February 1513 led to the election of Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, as Pope Leo X.

In late May 1513, a French army invaded Milan, while the Venetian army marched from Padua towards the French forces. The unpopularity of Maximilian Sforza allowed the French to advance through Lombardy with little resistance. The French captured Milan and besieged the remaining Swiss mercenaries in Novara. Despite having superior numbers, the French were defeated by a Swiss relief army on June 6. The Swiss pursued the fleeing French across the Alps but withdrew after being bribed by Louis.

The Venetians, lacking French support, retreated back into Venetian territory, pursued by the Spanish army. Despite determined Venetian resistance, the Spanish advanced towards Venice but ultimately could not capture the city. In October, the Venetian army was decisively defeated by the Spanish outside Vicenza, but skirmishes would continue into 1514.

The death of Louis XII in January 1515 brought Francis I to the throne of France. Francis immediately moved to reclaim his Italian territories. After assembling an army in the Dauphiné, Francis defeated a combined Swiss and Papal force at the Battle of Marignano in September 1515. Following the victory, Francis captured Milan and negotiated with Pope Leo X, who surrendered Parma and Piacenza to France.

The Treaty of Noyon in August 1516 recognized French claims to Milan and Spanish claims to Naples. Maximilian I ultimately signed the Treaty of Brussels in December 1516, confirming French occupation of Milan and Venetian claims in Lombardy. The peace, however, was short-lived, as tensions between the House of Valois and the House of Habsburg would lead to renewed warfare between 1521–26.

It would be against this backdrop of political instability, power struggles, and foreign invasions that Niccolo Machiavelli would write one of the most influential yet controversial political treatises in the modern era: “The Prince.”

In the next episode, we will begin a three-part examination of Machiavelli and his ideas.  First, we will look at Machiavelli, the man, within the context of his time.  After that, we will discuss his political philosophy outlined in “The Prince” and the “Discourses on Livy.”  Finally, we will examine Machiavelli as a historian who, along with Francesco Guicciardini, would lay the foundation of modern historical inquiry.  

As always, maps and other supporting resources for all episodes are listed in the episode description. In the meantime, for more historical content, please visit the “I Take History With My Coffee” blog at itakehistory.com and also consider liking the I Take History With My Coffee Facebook page.  Feedback and comments are welcome at itakehistory@gmail.com.  Or you can leave a review on Apple Podcasts or on Spotify.  You can also help support this podcast by buying me a coffee at buymeacoffee.com/itakehistory.  If you know anyone else who would enjoy this podcast, please let them know.  And thanks for listening.