Episode 44: Machiavelli the Politician

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode 44
Title: Machiavelli the Politician 

“It is so far from how one lives to how one should live that he who lets go of what is done for what should be done learns his ruin rather than his preservation. For a man who wants to make a profession of good in all regards must come to ruin among so many who are not good. Hence it is necessary to a prince, if he wants to maintain himself, to learn to be able not to be good, and to use this and not use it according to necessity.”
Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, 1513

Welcome back to the I Take History With My Coffee podcast where we explore history in the time it takes to drink a cup of coffee.

Machiavellian
adjective
cunning, scheming, and unscrupulous, especially in politics

Niccolò Machiavelli is often unfairly reduced to a symbol of unscrupulousness and political pragmatism.  The term "Machiavellian" itself carries negative connotations. However, this turns Machiavelli into a caricature and oversimplifies the complexity of Machiavelli's character and his nuanced beliefs.

As a diplomat representing Florence, he was not merely an observer but an active participant in the unfolding events of his time. His direct involvement with the powerful rulers of the time profoundly influenced his political outlook.  Machiavelli was also deeply influenced by humanist ideals and the study of classical Roman history. His engagement with these intellectual currents is evident in his writings, which reflect a nuanced understanding of governance and society. Machiavelli's reputation as a political thinker is often controversial, with interpretations ranging from seeing him as a cynical advocate of power politics to a pragmatist concerned with the stability and strength of the state.

Historian Leo Strauss emphasized the need to understand Machiavelli within the context of his time. He suggested that Machiavelli's intentions may not align with the conventional understanding of his ideas. Rather than simply advocating ruthless and unscrupulous behavior for rulers, Machiavelli might have been employing a rhetorical strategy to awaken his readers to the harsh realities of politics.

In a burst of inspiration, Machiavelli penned "The Prince" between spring and autumn of 1513. This work encapsulated all the knowledge he had amassed from his studies and service to the Florentine republic, distilling it into a practical philosophy of profound simplicity. Stripped of illusions by bitter despair, Machiavelli confronted the harsh realities of political life with clarity, presenting a vision that depicted the unyielding truth underlying all political endeavors.

Machiavelli originally dedicated "The Prince" to Giuliano de' Medici, whom he saw as the potential savior of Italy. However, Giuliano became Pope Leo X before Machiavelli completed the book, and his cousin Lorenzo de' Medici took over ruling Florence. Machiavelli, undeterred by this change, believed that the identity of his political adviser was more important than the ruler. He aimed to win favor with the ruler of Florence, so he re-dedicated the book to Lorenzo, making some adjustments to the text. Despite the change in dedication, Machiavelli's motivation for writing the book remained intact, focusing on regaining favor with the ruling powers.

Addressed to a ruling prince, "The Prince" offers advice on maintaining power with maximum efficiency. Machiavelli viewed politics through a lens of pragmatism, understanding that its effectiveness was not contingent upon ethical considerations but on its practical outcomes. The book's impact lies in its stark portrayal of political realities, forcing readers to confront questions of morality and power.

Machiavelli's primary concern was preserving the state, which he viewed as paramount. He emphasizes the importance of maintaining the stability and security of the state as the ultimate goal of political leadership. By prioritizing stability, Machiavelli contends that rulers can better safeguard the interests and freedoms of their citizens. He argues that a ruler must balance the pursuit of power with the need to avoid chaos and disorder, as instability can ultimately undermine his authority and lead to his downfall. In "The Prince," Machiavelli offers advice on maintaining power and ensuring stability and security, advocating for stability and security over traditional moral considerations.

 Machiavelli was an astute observer of politics and human nature. His writings often demonstrate a keen awareness of the harsh realities of power and the methods by which it is acquired and maintained. Machiavelli's commitment to political realism is evident in his rejection of idealistic notions of governance. He contends that politics should be studied and practiced as it is, not as it ought to be, according to moral or ethical standards. Machiavelli offers advice that often involves strategies that may seem immoral or unethical from a modern perspective, such as deceit and manipulation. This advice should be seen as pragmatic responses to the challenges of governance rather than expressions of personal values. 

Chapter 17, for example, emphasizes the pragmatic nature of political rule, where the effectiveness of a ruler's actions is more important than adhering to conventional notions of morality. Maintaining power often requires making difficult and morally questionable decisions.

In Chapter 17, Machiavelli delves into the concept of the ruler's character, particularly regarding whether a prince should be feared or loved by his subjects. He begins by stating that it would be ideal for a ruler to possess both qualities, but since this is often difficult to achieve, he suggests that it is safer to be feared than loved if one cannot be both.

He argues that fear is a powerful motivator and is more reliable than love because people are inherently self-interested and will abandon a ruler when it serves their interests to do so. On the other hand, fear is more consistent because it is grounded in the ruler's power to punish disobedience. Machiavelli famously states, "It is much safer to be feared than loved because ... love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails."

Machiavelli does acknowledge that excessive cruelty can be counterproductive, as it can lead to hatred and rebellion. He advises rulers to balance being feared and hated, recommending that they avoid being despised. He also suggests that a ruler should not hesitate to use cruelty when necessary for the stability and security of the state. Still, it should be applied judiciously and in a controlled manner. 

Machiavelli advises that a prince should be both a lion and a fox.  This metaphorical comparison illustrates different leadership aspects necessary for success in governance.  By being a "lion," a prince can instill fear and maintain control over their subjects while being a "fox" allows them to navigate the intricacies of political life and outwit their enemies.

   A leader who embodies the qualities of a lion is powerful, decisive, and unyielding when faced with challenges. They are willing to take bold actions and display authority to maintain control and stability within their realm.  A leader who embodies the qualities of a fox is clever, resourceful, and adept at using deception or manipulation when necessary to achieve their goals. They are skilled at outmaneuvering adversaries and finding solutions to problems through diplomacy or craftiness.

Machiavelli acknowledges the moral complexity of his advice, indicating that he still considered himself moral despite advocating for actions that may be perceived as immoral. It's worth noting the inconsistency in Machiavelli's stance. However, it's crucial to recognize that "The Prince" was intended as advice for princes on governing a state, not as a guide to personal morality. It's aimed at a specific class of individuals in particular circumstances, a point often overlooked, especially by those who mistakenly interpret it as a blueprint for personal success in business or other endeavors.

Although ambitious executives, junior officers, and politicians may have misinterpreted Machiavelli's message, they have grasped its implications. Machiavelli focuses on the qualities of leadership pertinent to ultimate leadership positions. However, whether these qualities translate to leadership on different levels or in varying circumstances is debatable. Whether modern-day practitioners of Machiavellian tactics aspire to govern entities resembling Renaissance city-states is also questionable.

In Machiavelli's view, the behavior of a prince is fundamentally shaped by his personal qualities, particularly the concept of virtù. Contrary to its usual ethical or religious connotations, Machiavelli's virtù denotes potency, power, and dynamism. It emphasizes the courage to seize opportunities and pursue goals without hesitation.  Virtù, in Machiavelli's usage, refers to the qualities of strength, ability, and skill that a prince must possess to govern and maintain power effectively. It encompasses qualities like decisiveness, cunning, diplomacy, and adaptability. Virtù is the prince's active agency, exerting his will to shape events and overcome challenges to pursue his goals.

Different circumstances demand varying degrees of virtù from a prince, with more significant challenges necessitating higher levels of potency. Machiavelli advises new rulers to minimize disruption, preserve established institutions, and avoid provoking discontent among the people. However, in extreme cases where securing rule requires it, the prince may need to destroy the existing state entirely.

Two other concepts are central to Machiavelli's discourse: Fortuna (fate) and occasion (opportunity). Fortuna, or fortune, represents the unpredictable and uncontrollable forces of fate and chance that influence political outcomes. It includes luck, timing, and external circumstances beyond the prince's control. Fortuna can present opportunities or obstacles that the prince must navigate, and it often plays a significant role in determining the success or failure of a ruler.

Machiavelli sees virtù and fortuna as interacting forces that shape political events. A prince's virtù enables him to recognize and seize opportunities presented by fortuna while mitigating the impact of adverse circumstances.  While individuals control only half of their destiny, recognizing and seizing opportunities presented by fate is crucial for success. The prince must adapt policies to changing circumstances and rely on their strength rather than depending on others.

Machiavelli cautions against stoic resignation, emphasizing the continuous struggle between forceful virtù and the whims of fortune. He portrays human nature as inherently ungrateful and fickle, with desires insatiable and leading to perpetual discontent. Ultimately, Machiavelli's teachings underscore the importance of pragmatism, adaptability, and self-reliance for a prince navigating the complex dynamics of power and governance.

“In the actions of all men, and especially of princes, where there is no court to appeal to, one looks to the end. So let prince win and maintain his state: the means will always be judged honorable, and will be praised by everyone.”

This sentiment that "the ends justify the means" requires careful consideration and context. While Machiavelli does emphasize the importance of achieving desirable outcomes, particularly for the stability and security of the state, his approach is more nuanced than a simple endorsement of any means necessary to achieve one's goals.

According to Machiavelli, the morality of an action should be judged by its outcomes rather than its intentions. He argues that leaders must be willing to engage in morally dubious actions if they serve the greater good of the state. This utilitarian approach to ethics reflects Machiavelli's belief in the inherent conflict between the ideal and the practical in politics, where pursuing power often necessitates difficult choices and compromises.

While Machiavelli's philosophy may be interpreted as advocating a certain degree of moral relativism in politics, it is inaccurate to portray him as endorsing a carte blanche approach to achieving one's goals. Instead, Machiavelli's emphasis on the pragmatic pursuit of power in maintaining stability and security suggests a more complex understanding of the relationship between means and ends in political action.

Yet the focus on “The Prince” doesn’t represent the totality of Machiavelli’s political thought.  For that, one also needs to study “Discourses on Livy.”  In it, Machiavelli engages deeply with the history of Rome as recounted by the ancient historian Titus Livius (familiarly known as Livy). The text is structured as a series of commentaries or discourses on Livy's work, where Machiavelli draws insights and lessons from Roman history to elucidate his political ideas.

One of the central themes of "Discourses on Livy" is the tension between republicanism and the rule by a prince. Machiavelli examines the virtues and flaws of both forms of government, often using examples from Roman history to illustrate his points. Unlike the amoral realism of "The Prince," the "Discourses" advocate for a republican form of government based on the active participation of citizens and the cultivation of civic virtues. Machiavelli argues that a well-ordered republic is more stable and enduring than a principality ruled by a single individual.  On the other hand, while republics are more stable and conducive to the flourishing of civic virtues, a principality can be more effective in times of crisis and external threat.

Moreover, Machiavelli discusses the importance of institutions and laws in maintaining political order and stability. He emphasizes the need for a robust legal framework and institutions that can withstand the test of time, pointing to Rome's successful governance as an example.

Machiavelli examines the historical conflict between the patricians and the plebeians in ancient Rome, known as the Conflict of the Orders. This example allows Machiavelli to delve into the dynamics of class struggle and the formation of political institutions. He highlights how the struggle between the patricians and plebeians ultimately led to republican institutions such as the tribunate, which served as a check on aristocratic power. Through this historical example, Machiavelli explores themes of social mobility, institutional innovation, and the balance of power within a republic.

However, Machiavelli also cites the rule of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, as a successful example of principality. Augustus's establishment of the Roman Empire brought about a period of relative peace and stability known as the Pax Romana. Machiavelli praises Augustus's ability to maintain order, administer justice, and secure the loyalty of the military and populace. He argues that Augustus's principality provided a solid and centralized government capable of governing effectively and protecting the state's interests.

Machiavelli emphasizes the importance of strong and decisive leadership in times of crisis, such as external threats or internal discord. He contends that princely rulers, unencumbered by the constraints of republican institutions, can act swiftly and decisively to address pressing challenges. Machiavelli contrasts this with the inefficiencies and divisions that can arise within republican governments, where decision-making is often subject to deliberation and compromise.  However, he also acknowledges the risks associated with concentrated power and the potential for abuse by authoritarian rulers. Machiavelli's analysis underscores the complex interplay between different forms of government and the contingent nature of political success.

Machiavelli discusses the overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud as another example of political change and renewal in Roman history. He analyzes how the abuses of Tarquin's authoritarian rule prompted the Roman people to rise and establish a republic. Machiavelli argues that the expulsion of Tarquin exemplifies the people's desire for liberty and self-government and their willingness to resist tyranny. This episode is a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked monarchical power and the importance of republican virtues such as civic duty and public-spiritedness.

“The Prince” and “The Discourses" offer a nuanced perspective on the interplay between governance and individual freedom.  Historian Jo Ann Cavallo suggests that while "The Discourses" may seem at odds with the pragmatic advice in "The Prince," they complement each other, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding political dynamics. Despite their apparent differences, they can be seen as complementary in several ways. First, they both acknowledge the complexity of political power and the need for leaders to adapt their strategies to their specific circumstances. While "The Prince" offers guidance for rulers in situations where centralized authority is necessary for stability, "The Discourses" provides insights into how republican institutions can promote long-term resilience and civic engagement.  

Furthermore, Machiavelli's works underscore the importance of flexibility and pragmatism in governance. Rather than adhering rigidly to a single ideological framework, rulers must be willing to adapt their approaches to the evolving challenges they encounter.

Due to his pragmatic approach to power and governance, Machiavelli is often regarded as a pivotal figure in the transition from medieval to modern political thought. His emphasis on political efficacy, realism, and the separation of ethics from politics has led many scholars to view him as a precursor to modern political science.

However, some counterarguments challenge Machiavelli's modernity. Critics argue that Machiavelli's ideas are deeply rooted in the historical and cultural context of Renaissance Italy, making it difficult to apply his theories directly to contemporary politics. Additionally, some scholars contend that Machiavelli's writings contain moral and ethical dimensions that cannot be entirely divorced from his political philosophy. 

“The Prince” remains one of Western literature's most influential and controversial works. While some view it as a satire or a handbook for immoral behavior, others see it as a guide for understanding power dynamics.  In an interview with the New York Times, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Jared Diamond highlighted "The Prince" as essential reading, suggesting it for then President Obama due to its insights into power dynamics. Diamond contends that Machiavelli, often dismissed as amoral, was a straightforward realist who understood power's uses and limitations. The enduring relevance of Machiavelli’s political philosophy lies in its portrayal of how individuals can navigate adversity.

"The Prince" highlights the conflict between moral integrity and effective governance, suggesting that rulers may need to compromise morality for efficiency. Historical examples, from the Borgia popes to regimes like Cambodia’s Pol Pot, underscore the grim reality that effective governance often requires morally questionable actions. This leads to ethical pluralism, where no universal moral standard exists for assessing different societal structures. Machiavelli's insights reveal the inherent tension between personal ethics and political pragmatism, highlighting the irrationality of human psychology in contrast to the rationality required for governance. Machiavelli's observations force us to confront the enduring dichotomy between personal morality and public governance.

Despite being vilified by many as a proponent of tyranny and amorality, Machiavelli's ideas have profoundly impacted subsequent thinkers and politicians. His emphasis on the pragmatic exercise of power and his skepticism toward idealistic visions of politics continues to resonate in modern discussions of leadership and governance.


However, Machiavelli’s influence was not just in political philosophy.  He would also help reframe the study of history.  In the next episode, we will look at Machiavelli, the historian.

As always, maps and other supporting resources for all episodes are listed in the episode description. In the meantime, for more historical content, please visit the “I Take History With My Coffee” blog at itakehistory.com and also consider liking the I Take History With My Coffee Facebook page.  Feedback and comments are welcome at itakehistory@gmail.com.  Or you can leave a review on Apple Podcasts or on Spotify.  You can also help support this podcast by buying me a coffee at buymeacoffee.com/itakehistory.  If you know anyone else who would enjoy this podcast, please let them know.  And thanks for listening.